412801 XXX10.1177/1368430211412801Rosenthal et al.Group Processes & Intergroup Relations G Group Processes & P Intergroup Relations I Article R Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 15(2) 149 –165 Polyculturalism and openness © The Author(s) 2011 Reprints and permission: sagepub. about criticizing one’s culture: co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/1368430211412801 Implications for sexual prejudice gpir.sagepub.com Lisa Rosenthal,1,2 Sheri R. Levy2 and Ian Moss2 Abstract Abundant research on the relationship between ideologies and sexual prejudice has not focused on intergroup ideologies such as colorblindness, multiculturalism, and polyculturalism. In three studies with racially and ethnically diverse college and community samples, endorsement of polyculturalism— an ideology focusing on the interactions, influences, and connections among racial and ethnic groups—was associated with lower sexual prejudice (as measured by affective prejudice toward gay men and lesbians, traditional heterosexism, denial of discrimination against homosexuals, and attitudes toward gay men and lesbians). Polyculturalism’s relationship with lower sexual prejudice was mediated by greater openness to criticizing elements of one’s culture that marginalize some groups. Polyculturalism accounted for unique variance in sexual prejudice even when controlling for colorblindness, multiculturalism, social dominance orientation, ethnic identity, conservatism, as well as race and gender. Colorblindness and multiculturalism were not consistently related to lower sexual prejudice. Future work on intergroup ideologies and sexual prejudice is discussed. Keywords colorblind, ideologies, multiculturalism, polyculturalism, sexual prejudice Paper received 05 October 2010; revised version accepted 07 May 2011. Sexual prejudice continues to be a problem Altemeyer, 2006; Haslam & Levy, 2006; Herek, around the world (e.g., Haslam, 1997; Hegarty & 2000; Pratto, Sidanius, Stallworth, & Malle, 1994; Pratto, 2001; Herek, 2000; Herek, 2006; Herek & Whitley, 1999; Whitley, 2009; Whitley & Ægis- Berrill, 1992; Massey, 2009). Much research indi- dóttir, 2000; Whitley & Lee, 2000). As examples, cates that the study of prevalent belief systems or ideologies helps provide a fuller understand- 1Yale University, USA ing of sexual prejudice. Conservatism, essentialist 2Stony Brook University, USA beliefs, religious beliefs, right-wing authoritari- Corresponding author: anism (RWA), and social dominance orientation Lisa Rosenthal, Yale University, 135 College St., Suite 323, (SDO) have been consistently shown to account New Haven, CT, USA 06510-2483. for individual differences in sexual prejudice (e.g., Email: [email protected] 150 Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 15(2) SDO, or greater support for group-based inequal- that group categories (e.g., race) are superficial ity and hierarchy, is associated with less support and irrelevant to understanding and getting to for gay and lesbian rights (Pratto et al., 1994; also know others, and presumably prejudice is reduced see Whitley, 1999; Whitley & Ægisdóttir, 2000), when group memberships are de-emphasized and greater conservatism in one’s religion is associ- (e.g., Ryan, Hunt, Weible, Peterson, & Casas, ated with more negative attitudes toward gay men 2007; Wolsko, Park, Judd, & Wittenbrink, 2000). and lesbians (Haslam & Levy, 2006; Herek, 1988). Colorblindness has taken different forms, includ- Some of the aforementioned belief systems ing focusing on individuals’ unique qualities, or or ideologies have been examined for their asso- focusing on the similarities across different ciations with many types of prejudice, including groups of people (for a review, see Rosenthal & sexual prejudice, racism, and sexism, because Levy, 2010). People who believe in multicultural- these ideologies are conceptualized as generally ism think that people’s race and ethnicity are rel- justifying bias and discrimination against numer- evant and nontrivial parts of people requiring ous marginalized groups in society. “Interethnic” attention, and presumably prejudice is lower for or “intergroup” ideologies (ideologies about people who are knowledgeable and appreciative racial and ethnic groups) —colorblindness, multi- of other groups’ rich histories and customs (e.g., culturalism, and polyculturalism—have mainly Ryan et al., 2007; Sleeter, 1991; Takaki, 1993; been studied in relation to racial and ethnic preju- Wolsko et al., 2000). Multiculturalism has also dice (e.g., Rosenthal & Levy, 2010; Ryan, Casas, & taken different forms, including a form focused Thompson, 2010; Vorauer, Gagnon, & Sasaki, on learning about the important differences 2009; Wolsko, Park, & Judd, 2006; Zirkel, 2008), between different racial and ethnic groups (for a although these ideologies seem to have a wider review, see Rosenthal & Levy, 2010). range of applicability. Some have argued that People who believe in polyculturalism think intergroup ideologies are relevant and important that it is relevant and important to pay attention for understanding the persistence of other forms to the historical and contemporary interactions of prejudice because people’s desire to hold onto among many different racial and ethnic groups, their racial or ethnic group’s traditions or cus- and presumably prejudice is lower for people toms can sometimes serve to justify continued who focus on the ways that past and current discrimination of some groups, such as women exchanges and connections among groups have or homosexuals (e.g., McKerl, 2007; Prashad, influenced their cultures (Kelley, 1999; Prashad, 2001). The main goal of the present investigation 2001, 2003). Similar to a belief in multicultural- is to examine for the first time the association ism, a belief in polyculturalism focuses attention that polyculturalism—a relatively newly studied on recognizing people’s racial and ethnic back- ideology with a focus on the mutual interactions, grounds, but instead of calling attention to the influences, and connections among different differences among groups, it highlights the many racial and ethnic groups (Kelley, 1999; Prashad, connections among groups due to past and 2001; Rosenthal & Levy, under review) —has present interactions and mutual influence. with sexual prejudice. Although a belief in polyculturalism emphasizes connections, these are not the same connections Intergroup ideologies emphasized by the cross-group commonalities (e.g., all being Americans or human beings) aspect The study of intergroup ideologies—especially of colorblindness; instead, a belief in polycultur- colorblindness and multiculturalism—has a long alism emphasizes different racial and ethnic history in numerous countries including Canada, groups’ connected pasts that have shaped those the Netherlands, and the United States (e.g., cultures and groups of people. A person who Esses & Gardner, 1996; Verkuyten, 2009; Zirkel, believes in polyculturalism would think of all cul- 2008). People who believe in colorblindness think tures and people as the products of historical and Rosenthal et al. 151 contemporary interactions and influences among In several survey studies, greater endorsement many different racial and ethnic groups (Kelley, of polyculturalism has thus far been associated 1999), recognizing the ways that we are all deeply with consistently more positive intergroup atti- connected to people of other cultures by our tudes, such as less support for social inequality, intersecting histories and shared cultural influ- greater interest in, appreciation for, and comfort ences (Prashad, 2003). with diversity, and greater willingness for intereth- Taken together, the above brief review high- nic contact (Rosenthal & Levy, under review). lights that colorblindness, multiculturalism, and The associations that polyculturalism has been polyculturalism have some important conceptual found to have with these intergroup attitudes distinctions and also some conceptual similarities. have remained significant even when controlling Demonstrating that there are some conceptual for other powerful predictors of intergroup similarities among the three ideologies, some attitudes, including SDO and RWA, as well as studies have found positive correlations among multiple measures of the other ideologies, color- these ideologies. As examples, Ryan et al. (2007) blindness and multiculturalism. These prior stud- found endorsement of colorblindness and multi- ies were conducted with samples of racially and culturalism to be positively correlated with each ethnically diverse undergraduates and community other, and we (Rosenthal & Levy, under review) adults in New York, as well as in a sample from a have found endorsement of polyculturalism to be United States-wide telephone survey, suggesting positively correlated with endorsement of multi- the relationship of polyculturalism with positive culturalism. At the same time, demonstrating intergroup attitudes is consistent across various their conceptual distinctions, the three ideologies groups in the United States. Although the studies (with multiculturalism and colorblindness on polyculturalism to date have not yet found assessed using a variety of measures in the litera- evidence of negative implications for intergroup ture) have been demonstrated to load onto sepa- attitudes, there are still possible weaknesses of rate factors in factor analyses (e.g., Rosenthal & polyculturalism that have yet to be empirically Levy, under review; Ryan et al., 2010). demonstrated. For instance,