Gorkhaland and Madhesi Movements in the Border Area of India and Nepal:A Comparative Study A Thesis Submitted To Sikkim University In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy By Animesh Andrew Lulam Rai Department of Sociology School of Social Sciences October 2017 Gangtok 737102 INDIA ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I have been indebted to very many individuals and institutions to complete this work. First and foremost, with my whole heart I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Swati Akshay Sachdeva for giving me the liberty, love and lessons to pursue this work. Thank you for your unconditional support and care. Secondly, I would like to thank my former supervisor Dr. Binu Sundas for introducing me to the world of social movements and Gorkhaland. I am equally thankful to Dr. Sandhya Thapa, the Head of the Department of Sociology at Sikkim University, Dr. Indira, Ms. Sona Rai, Mr. Shankar Bagh and Mr. Binod Bhattarai, faculties of Sociology at Sikkim University for all the encouragement, support and care. I would love to express my heartfelt gratitude to Dr. Mona Chettri for the invaluable comments and reading materials. I am ever grateful to the Ministry of Minority Affairs for funding my studies and research at Sikkim University. My heartfelt thanks to Prof. Maharjan, Neeraj da, Suman Da at Hiroshima Univerity. Thanks to Mr. Prashant Jha and Sohan for showing me the crisis of Madhesis. I am also indebted to Prof. Mahendra P. Lama and Prof. Jyoti P. Tamang for all the encouragement and blessings which motivated me to pursue higher studies. Thanks to my teacher, Dr. Otojit Kshetrimayum who moulded the illogical me into the world of academia and for every fruitful seminary invitation at the V.V. Giri National Labour Institute, Noida. I am thankful to all the staff at the Tista-Indus Central Library of Sikkim University and Dr. Chandel, the Head Librarian at Sikkim University for all the help. My innermost thanks to Prof. A.C. Sinha for all the books that he donated at Sikkim University Central library. I am also thankful to all my respondents and hosts at Darjeeling, Siliguri, Kakkirvitta, Biratnagar, Itahari, Birtamode and Dharan. Thanks to the owners of New Saathi Hotel at Jhapa, hotel owners of Sunsari hotel at Biratnagar and Ratna Inn at Dharan for my pleasant stay. Thanks to Mr. Sahid, his wife and elder brother for all the technical help and binding the thesis. My friends Uttam, Amit, Rabindra and Devashish for all the academic support and encouragement. My senior colleagues Prof. S.N. Karr, Prof. Hirok Roy, Dr. Krishna Dey, Dr. Sanjoy Roy, Dr. Arindam Chakrovorty, Dr. Kabir Ranjan Saha, Dr. Somnath Bandhyopadhya, Mr. Sahiber Rehman and all my well wishers at Sudhiranjan Lahiri Mahavidyalaya, Nadia for all the support and care. I express my thanks to my sister Anughra, Suman and Pranesh for making my stay lively at Gangtok. Thanks to my family, Mama and Ama for making my academic ventures possible. Last not the least thanks to Sarbada my fiancée for the eternal wait and love. Animesh Rai. Contents Chapters Page no. 1. Introduction 1.1. Background 1 1.2. Review of Literature 8 1.2.1. Social Movements: Background 8 1.2.2. Definitions of Social Movements 11 1.2.3. Characteristics and Components of Social Movements 14 1.2.4. Types of Social Movements 16 1.2.5. Theories of Social Movements 19 1.2.6. Social Movement and the State 27 1.2.7. Social Movements Studies in India 28 1.2.8. Frame Analysis 31 1.2.9. Ethnicity 32 1.2.10. Ethnicity and Politics 36 1.2.11. Borders 38 1.2.12. Indo-Nepal Open Border 39 1.3. Rational of the Study 40 1.4. Analytical Framework 43 1.4.1. Research Questions 43 1.4.2. Objectives of the Study 44 1.4.3. Research Design 44 1.4.4. Methodology 46 1.5. Chapterisation 47 1.6. Limitations of the Study 48 2. Book View and Field View of Gorkhaland Movement 2.1. Origin of the term Darjeeling 50 2.2. Geography and Demography of Darjeeling District 51 2.3. Evolution of Darjeeling 52 2.4. Development of Gorkha Society in Darjeeling 57 2.5. Evolution of Gorkhaland Movement: Historical Context 2.6. The Field view of Gorkhaland Movement under Gorkha Jan Mukti Morcha: 68 2007 Onwards 2.7. The Field Findings 82 3. Book View and Field View of Madhesi Movement 3.1. Geographical Divisions and Demography: Nepal’s Madesh or Terai 91 3.2. Who is a Madhesi? 93 3.2.1. Caste Structure of Madhesi 94 3.3. Historical Background of Nepal with reference to Madesh 95 3.3.1. Shah period (1769 -1846) 96 3.3.2. Rana period (1846 – 1951) 98 3.3.3. Panchayat Period (1960 – 1990) 100 3.3.4. Parliamentary Democracy after 1990 101 3.4. Evolution of Madhesi Movement 104 3.4.1. The First Phase of Madhesi Movement 106 3.4.2. Second Phase of Madhesi Movement: After 1990’s 109 3.4.3. The Fieldview of the Madhesi Movement: 2006 Onwards 116 3.5. The Field Findings from Terai region of Nepal 121 4. Politics of Culture –A Case of Gorkhaland and Madhesi Movements 4.1.Introduction: Politics of Culture 126 4.2. Politics of Culture in India and Nepal 129 4.2.1. Language and Politics in Gorkhaland and Madeshi Movements 130 4.2.2. Politics, Caste and Indigenous Community 138 4.2.3. Politicisation of Region in Gorkhaland and Madhesi Movements 141 4.2.4. Cultural Symbols, Dress Codes and Presentation of Self in Gorkhaland 144 and Madhesi Movements 4.2.5. Gender and Political Culture 145 4.2.6. Religion in Gorkhaland and Madeshi Movements 149 5. Understanding Gorkhaland and Madhesi Movements Through the Framing Analysis 5.1. Framing Theory of Social Movements 152 5.2. Reasons for the Emergence of Gorkhaland and Madhesi Movements: 154 Respondent’s Frame 5.3. Frames of Gorkhaland and Madhesi Political Groups 156 5.4. Strategies Used by the Gorkhaland and Madhesi Activists to 161 Achieve Their Goals 5.5. Reaction of the State towards the Movements 167 5.6. Result of the Movements 170 6. Conclusion 174 6.1. The Foundation of Gorkhaland and Madhesi Movements: Retracing the History 174 6.2. The Indo-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship 177 6.3. Changing Outlook of Gorkhas and Madhesis 181 6.4. Gorkhaland and Madhesi Movements: Similarities and Differences 184 Bibliography 187 – 199 Annexure List of Figures Figure 2.1. Caste Structure of Gorkha Society 60 Figure 2.2. Proposed Map of Gorkhaland 72 Figure 4.1. Federal Provincial Demarcation of Nepal 143 ABBREVIATIONS ABAP – Akhil Bharat Adivasi Parishad ABS – Association for Borderland Studies AINBS – All India Nepali Bhasa Samiti BGP – Bharatiya Gorkha Parisangh BJP – Bharatiya Janta Party CBES – Chure Bhawar Ekta Samaj CPA – Comprehensive Peace Agreement CPI – Communist Party of India CPI (M) – Communist Party of India (Marxist) CPN (M) – Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) CPN (UML) – Communist Party of Nepal (United Marxist Leninist) CPRM – Communist Party of Revolutionary Marxist CRPF – Central Reserve Police Forces DDCC – Darjeeling District Congress Committee DGHC – Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council EPG – Eminent People’s Group EU – European Union FDFN – Federal Democratic National Front GDNS – Gorkha Dukha Nivarak Sammelan GJMM – Gorkha Jan Mukti Morcha GNLF – Gorkha National Liberation Front GoI – Government of India GTA – Gorkhaland Territorial Administration ICG – International Crisis Group INC – Indian National Congress JAP – Jan Andolan Party JTMM – Janatantrik Tarai Madeshi Morcha JTMM (G) – Janatantrik Tarai Madeshi Morcha (Goit) JTMM (JS) – Janatantrik Tarai Madeshi Morcha (Jalwa Singh) MJF – Madhesi Janadhikar Forum MJF (D) – Madeshi Janadhikar Forum (Democratic) MJF (N) – Madeshi Janadhikar Forum (Nepal) MLA – Member of the Legislative Assembly MNLF – Madhesi National Liberation Front or (Madhesi Rashtriya Mukti Morcha MRMM) MP – Member of the Parliament MPRF – Madhesi People’s Right Forum or (MJF- Madhesi Janadhikar Forum) NC – Nepali Congress NDF – National Democratic Front NEFEN – The Nepal Federation of Nationalities NEFIN – The Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities NGO – Governmental Organisations (NGO’s) NSM – New Social Movements NTC – Nepal Tarai Congress RPP – Rastriya Prajatantra Party SBI – State Bank of India SDF – Sikkim Democratic Front SJDA – Siliguri Jalpaiguri Development Area SLMM – Samyukta Loktantrik Madhesi Morcha SMO – Social Movement Organisation SPA – Seven Party Alliance TJMM – Tarai Janatantrik Mukti Morcha TMLP – Tarai Madesh Loktantrik Party UCPN – United Communist Party of Nepal UPA – United Progressive Alliance USSR – Union of Soviet Socialist Republics WBPSC – West Bengal Public Services Commission Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1. Background Historically, social movements in many countries have been organised mostly for achieving civil rights and also for attaining national independence from the exploitative or authoritarian regimes (Thomson and Tapscott 2010:1). The creation of modern India and Nepal were also engineered through social movements. The earlier forms of authority that is colonialism in India and monarchy in Nepal came to an end with a long struggle for independence and democratisation movement. Democracy in these countries has provided a reasonable accommodative space for social movements and endures its existence. French sociologist, Alain Touraine holds a positive opinion about democracies capable of „self production‟ through internally generated social movements (Oommen 2008:17). Likewise, Tilly and Wood (2009:3) are of the view that if social movements begin to vanish then it is an indication of decline of ordinary people‟s participation in public politics. Therefore, they claim that the “rise and fall of social movements” are signals of “expansion or contradiction of democratic opportunities”. India and Nepal at present times are two major democratic nations in South Asia. India is regarded as the biggest democracy in the world and Nepal promulgated a constitution in 2015 which was adopted by more than eighty per cent members of the Constituent Assembly (Muni 2015:16).