Funerary Ritual and Urban Development in Archaic Central Italy By Jennifer Marilyn Evans A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Classical Archaeology in the Graduate Division of the University of California, Berkeley Committee in charge: Professor J. Theodore Peña, Chair Professor Christopher Hallett Professor Dylan Sailor Professor Nicola Terrenato Professor Carlos Noreña Spring 2014 Copyright 2014, Jennifer Marilyn Evans Abstract Funerary Ritual and Urban Development in Archaic Central Italy by Jennifer Marilyn Evans Doctor of Philosophy in Classical Archaeology University of California, Berkeley Professor J. Theodore Peña, Chair This dissertation examines the evidence for burial in archaic Rome and Latium with a view to understanding the nature of urban development in the region. In particular, I focus on identifying those social and political institutions that governed relations between city‐ states at a time when Rome was becoming the most influential urban center in the area. I examine the evidence for burial gathered primarily from the past four decades or so of archaeological excavation in order to present first, a systematic account of the data and second, an analysis of these materials. I reveal that a high degree of variation was observed in funerary ritual across sites, and suggest that this points to a complex system of regional networks that allowed for the widespread travel of people and ideas. I view this as evidence for the openness of archaic societies in Latium, whereby people and groups seem to have moved across regions with what seems to have been a fair degree of mobility. I connect the variety in tomb construction to the more widespread phenomenon of monumentalization, which encouraged the construction in stone of residences, temples and public buildings across the region. I consider the individuals and groups responsible for these types of construction, and how they contributed to the development of and interaction between city‐states. I begin with an assessment of the historical reliability of the ancient sources concerning early Rome, since they were written centuries later than the time in question, yet comment on some of the features in the archaeological record. I go on to consider the literary evidence for funerary ritual in early Rome, in order to determine what the ancient sources have to say about the customs of their ancestors and what significance this has for the archaeological evidence. Then, I consider the documentary evidence for funerary ritual, which comes from the legislation of the Twelve Tables. The prohibitions preserved here, if they represent a valid document, illustrate the concerns of lawmakers with regard to funerary activity in and around the city of Rome. In the following section I present the archaeological evidence for burial, and provide a detailed summary of archaic burials according to site, and offer a brief description of each settlement in order to better contextualize the data. I conclude this section with an interpretation of the evidence. Finally, I concentrate on the archaeological evidence from archaic Gabii, which results from my own participation on the excavation of the site. The results of these excavations allow for the study of the intersection between the urban area, burial and landownership. 1 To Robert B. Caruthers i Table of Contents Chronology of Latial Culture and the Archaic Period iv List of Abbreviations v List of Figures vi‐xiii Acknowledgements xiv 1. Introduction 1‐4 2. The Ancient Historiographical Sources for Early Roman History 5‐29 2a. Introduction 2b. The Annalistic Tradition 2c. The Antiquarian Tradition 2d. The Narrative Tradition 2e. The Ancient Documentary Sources 2f. The Oral Tradition 2g. Landmarks, Monuments and Toponyms 2h. Modern Scholarship Regarding the Historiographic Tradition 2i. Conclusion 3. The Literary Evidence for Roman Funerary Rituals and Burial Practices 30‐50 3a. Introduction 3b. Cremation and Inhumation 3c. Infant Burial 3d. Burial in the Home 3e. Nocturnal Burial 3f. Polybius 3g. Conclusion 4. The Documentary Evidence for Roman Funerary Ritual: the Twelve Tables 51‐75 4a. Introduction 4b. Transmission and Reconstruction of the Twelve Tables 4c. The Tenth Table 4d. Conclusion 5. The Archaeological Evidence for Archaic Burial in Latium Vetus 76‐140 5a. Introduction 5b. Previous Scholarship 5c. Types of Burial 5d. Funerary Rite 5e. Archaeological Sites 5f. Discussion 5g. Conclusion ii 6. Burial and Urban Development in Archaic Gabii 141‐196 6a. Introduction 6b. The Ancient Sources for Archaic Gabii 6c. History of Excavation 6d. Topography and Development of the Site 6e. The Gabii Project 6f. The Gabii Project ‐ Area D 6g. Chronology 6h. Features of Area D: The Archaic Building 6i. Features of Area D: The Burials 6j. Conclusion 7. Conclusion 197‐199 Figures 200‐267 Bibliography 268‐295 Appendix A: Area D Harris Matrix 2011 and 2012 296 Appendix B: Area D Burials 297‐299 iii Chronology of Latial Culture and the Archaic Period1 Pre‐urban Latial Phase I c.1000‐900 Final Bronze Age (Protovillanovan) Latial Phase IIA c. 900‐830 Early Iron Age (Villanovan) Proto‐urban Latial Phase IIB c. 830‐770 " Latial Phase IIIA c. 770‐740 " Latial Phase IIIB c. 740‐730/20 " Latial Phase IVA c. 730/20‐640/30 Early and Middle Orientalizing Latial Phase IVB c. 640/30‐580 Late Orientalizing Urban Archaic c. 580‐480/50 1 These dates are based on Ampolo et al. (1980) and are the most widely‐used in scholarship concerning Bronze and Iron Age Latium. I have adopted this chronology for my dissertation. However, Bietti Sestieri and De Santis (2006), on the basis of radiocarbon dates recovered from funerary and settlement contexts, suggest raising the conventional chronology by about 50 to 100 years. The evidence is compelling, but may require further review before gaining wide acceptance. All dates are B.C.E. unless otherwise stated. iv List of Abbreviations AJP American Journal of Philology AL Archeologia Laziale ADRA Atlante di Roma Antica BullCom Bullettino della Commissione archeologica Comunale di Roma CLP Civiltà del Lazio primitivo CVA Corpus Vasorum Antiquorum GRT La grande Roma dei Tarquini HSCP Harvard Studies in Classical Philology ICr Inscriptiones creticae IG Inscriptiones graecae JHS Journal of Hellenic Studies LTUR Lexicon topographicum urbis romae LTURS Lexicon topographicum urbis romae suburbium LTUR Suppl. Lexicon topographicum urbis romae supplementum NSc Notizie degli scavi di antichità. Atti dell' Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei NTDAR A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome OpRom Opuscula Romana PP La parola del passato RendPontAcc Atti della Pontificia Accademia romana di archeologia RM Ergh Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archaeologischen Instituts, Roemische Abteiling. Ergänzungsheft Roselle Gli scavi e la mostra. Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici della Toscana. SE Studi Etruschi TLE Testimonia linguae etruscae v List of Figures Chapter 1 Figure 1.1 Map of ancient Latium, showing major sites. After Smith 1996, 240, map 1. Chapter 5 The Archaeological Evidence for Archaic Burial in Latium Vetus Figure 5.1 Plan of Rome showing hills and location of early cemeteries. Lanciani's excavations are indicated just north of the Velia. After Holloway 1994, 24, fig. 2.1. Figure 5.2 Plan of the Esquiline necropolis according to Pinza. After BullCom 1914, pl. V‐VI. Figure 5.3 Attic Red Figure pelike from tomb 89 on the Esquiline necropolis. After Colonna 1977, 140, fig. 3/A. Figure 5.4 Attic Red Figure pelike from tomb 89 on the Esquiline necropolis. After Colonna 1977, 141, fig. 3/B. Figure 5.5 Container of peperino of tomb 193 from the Esquiline necropolis. After Colonna 1977, 142, fig. 4. Figure 5.6 Container of peperino of tomb 193 from the Esquiline necropolis. After Holloway 1994, 26, fig. 2.4. Figure 5.7 Marble urn of tomb 193 from the Esquiline necropolis. After Colonna 1977, 143, fig. 5/A. Figure 5.8 Marble urn of tomb 193 of the Esquiline necropolis. After Holloway 1994, 26, fig. 2.3 . Figure 5.9 Drawing of urn, probably from tomb 5 from the Esquiline necropolis. After Colonna 1977, 148, fig. 7. Figure 5.10 Urn, probably from tomb 5 from the Esquiline necropolis. After MonAnt 1905, 186, fig. 78. Figure 5.11 Urn from unknown tomb as drawn by Lanciani. After BullCom 1912, 38, fig. 13. Figure 5.12 Plan showing location of early cemeteries near the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele II. Triangles indicate the tombs excavated by Pinza; the black rectangles are the tombs excavated by Asor et al. 2009; the grey rectangles are the tombs excavated by Colini 1932. After Asor Rosa et al. 2009, 76, fig. 11. vi Figure 5.13 General plan of excavation in 2002 in the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele II. After Barbera et al. 2005, 303, fig. 38. Figure 5.14 General plan of excavation in 2002 in Piazza Vittorio Emanuele II. After Barbera et al. 2005, 307, fig. 41. Figure 5.15 Amphora from tomb 3 in 2002 excavations in Piazza Vittorio Emanuele II. After Barbera et al. 2005, 310, fig. 46. Figure 5.16 Grave goods from tomb 12 in 2002 excavations in Piazza Vittorio Emanuele II. After Barbera et al. 2005, 315, fig. 59. Figure 5.17 Sarcophagus of tuff, tomb 12 from 2002 excavations in Piazza Vittorio Emanuele II. After Barbera et al. 2005, 315, fig. 57. Figure 5.18 General plan of the excavation between the Viale del Monte Oppio and the Via delle Terme di Traiano, Rome. After Coarelli 2001 11, fig. 4. Figure 5.19 Suggrundarium E from Via Sacra, Rome. After Gjerstad 1953, 147, fig. 141. Figure 5.20 Suggrundarium F from Via Sacra. After Gjerstad 1953, 147, fig. 142. Figure 5.21 Suggrundarium LL from Via Sacra. After Gjerstad 1953, 148, fig. 143. Figure 5.22 Suggrundarium NN from Via Sacra. After Gjerstad 1953, 148, fig.