ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT REDUCING THE EFFECTS OF PREDATION ON THREATENED AND ENDANGERED BIRDS IN THE STATE OF MAINE Prepared by: UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE ANIMAL AND PLANT HEALTH INSPECTION SERVICE WILDLIFE SERVICES In Cooperation With: United States Department of the Interior United States Fish and Wildlife Service Migratory Bird Program Region 5 United States Department of the Interior United States Fish and Wildlife Service Division of Wildlife and Sport Fish Restoration Region 5 United States Department of the Interior United States Fish and Wildlife Service Ecological Services Region 5 Maine Field Office November 2012 TABLE OF CONTENTS ACRONYMS .............................................................................................................................................. iv CHAPTER 1: PURPOSE AND NEED FOR ACTION 1.1 PURPOSE ....................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 NEED FOR ACTION ...................................................................................................................... 2 1.3 SCOPE OF THIS ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT ............................................................... 7 1.4 RELATIONSHIP OF THIS DOCUMENT TO OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL DOCUMENTS . 12 1.5 AUTHORITY OF FEDERAL AND STATE AGENCIES ........................................................... 14 1.6 COMPLIANCE WITH LAWS AND STATUTES ....................................................................... 15 1.7 DECISIONS TO BE MADE ......................................................................................................... 19 CHAPTER 2: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT AND ISSUES 2.1 AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT ..................................................................................................... 20 2.2 ISSUES ADDRESSED IN THE ANALYSIS OF ALTERNATIVES .......................................... 22 2.3 ISSUES CONSIDERED BUT NOT ANALYZED IN DETAIL WITH RATIONALE ............... 28 CHAPTER 3: ALTERNATIVES 3.1 DESCRIPTION OF THE ALTERNATIVES ................................................................................ 37 3.2 ALTERNATIVES CONSIDERED BUT NOT ANALYZED IN DETAIL .................................. 42 3.3 STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES ............................................................................... 47 3.4 ADDITIONAL STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES SPECIFIC TO THE ISSUES ...... 48 CHAPTER 4: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 4.1 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES FOR ISSUES ANALYZED IN DETAIL .................. 53 4.2 CUMULATIVE IMPACTS OF THE PROPOSED ACTION BY ISSUE .................................. 137 CHAPTER 5: LIST OF PREPARERS AND PERSONS CONSULTED 5.1 LIST OF PREPARERS................................................................................................................ 146 5.2 LIST OF PERSONS CONSULTED ............................................................................................ 146 APPENDIX A - LITERATURE CITED ................................................................................................. 147 APPENDIX B - METHODS AVAILABLE FOR RESOLVING OR PREVENTING NEST PREDATION IN MAINE............................................................................................... 172 APPENDIX C - THE NUMBER AND LOCATIONS OF NESTING PIPING PLOVERS IN MAINE 1981-2011 ....................................................................................................................... 183 APPENDIX D - THE NUMBER AND LOCATIONS OF NESTING LEAST TERNS IN MAINE 1977-2011 ....................................................................................................................... 184 APPENDIX E - THE NUMBER AND LOCATIONS OF NESTING ROSEATE TERNS IN MAINE 1977-2010 ....................................................................................................................... 185 APPENDIX F - MDIFW GOALS AND OBJECTIVES FOR THE RECOVERY OF PIPING PLOVERS, LEAST TERNS, AND ROSEATE TERNS ............................................... 186 APPENDIX G - SPECIES THAT ARE FEDERALLY LISTED AS THREATENED OR ENDANGERED IN THE STATE OF MAINE ............................................................. 188 Maine Nest Predator Environmental Assessment ii APPENDIX H - SPECIES THAT ARE STATE LISTED AS THREATENED OR ENDANGERED IN THE STATE OF MAINE .......................................................................................... 189 APPENDIX I - STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES TO SAFEGUARD STATE THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES ........................................................ 192 APPENDIX J - USDA APHIS WILDLIFE SERVICES DIRECTIVE 2.201: THE WILDLIFE SERVICES DECISION MODEL ................................................................................... 195 Maine Nest Predator Environmental Assessment iii ACRONYMS AMDUCA Animal Medicinal Drug Use Clarification Act APHIS Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service AVMA American Veterinary Medical Association BBS Breeding Bird Survey BCR Bird Conservation Region BO Biological Opinion CBC Christmas Bird Count CCP Comprehensive Conservation Plan CEQ Council on Environmental Quality CFR Code of Federal Regulations EA Environmental Assessment ECOFRAM Ecological Committee on FIFRA Risk Assessment EIS Environmental Impact Statement EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency ESA Endangered Species Act FDA Food and Drug Administration FEIS Federal Environmental Impact Statement FIFRA Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act FONSI Finding of No Significant Impact FR Federal Register FY Fiscal Year IC Intracardiac IV Intravenous IWDM Integrated Wildlife Damage Management MANEM Mid-Atlantic/New England/Maritime MBTA Migratory Bird Treaty Act MCINWR Maine Coastal Islands National Wildlife Refuge MDABPC Maine Department of Agriculture Board of Pesticides Control MDIFW Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife MOU Memorandum of Understanding MRS Maine Revised Statutes NEPA National Environmental Policy Act NHPA National Historic Preservation Act NWRC National Wildlife Research Center PBR Potential Biological Removal PL Public Law RCNWR Rachel Carson National Wildlife Refuge SOP Standard Operating Procedure T&E Threatened and Endangered USC United States Code USDA United States Department of Agriculture USDI United States Department of Interior USFWS United States Fish and Wildlife Service USGS United States Geological Survey WS Wildlife Services Maine Nest Predator Environmental Assessment iv CHAPTER 1: PURPOSE AND NEED FOR ACTION 1.1 PURPOSE The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), Wildlife Services (WS)1 program in the State of Maine continues to receive requests for assistance to resolve or prevent predation on nesting native bird populations on coastal islands and beaches associated with red fox (Vulpes vulpes), gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), coyotes (Canis latrans), raccoons (Procyon lotor), Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana), striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis), mink (Mustela vison), long-tailed weasels (Mustela frenata), short-tailed weasels (Mustela erminea), feral and domestic cats (Felis spp.), feral and domestic dogs (Canis spp.), eastern chipmunks (Tamias striatus), ring-billed gulls (Larus delawarensis), herring gulls (Larus argentatus), great black- backed gulls (Larus marinus), laughing gulls (Larus atricilla), American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos), American kestrels (Falco sparverius), merlins (Falco columbarius), and great horned owls (Bubo virginianus). Collectively, those species of wildlife are known to feed on eggs, adults, and nestlings of ground nesting bird species, including threatened and endangered (T&E) bird species, and will be referred to collectively as nest predators2 throughout the EA. Normally, individual wildlife damage management actions conducted by the WS program could be categorically excluded from further analysis under the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), in accordance with APHIS implementing regulations for the NEPA (7 CFR 372.5(c), 60 FR 6000-6003). The purpose of this Environmental Assessment (EA) is to evaluate activities conducted by WS to manage predation and the threat of predation on federal and state-listed T&E species. This EA will also evaluate the issuance of depredation permits by the Migratory Bird Division of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) for the take of protected bird species pursuant to the Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA). In addition, this EA will facilitate planning between WS, the USFWS, and the Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife (MDIFW) to initiate funding mechanisms under grant programs administered by the Wildlife and Sport Fish Program for the conservation of T&E species. Other federal funding mechanisms through the USFWS, including Endangered Species Act (ESA) recovery implementation funds or refuge project funds may also be evaluated and utilized to reduce the risk of predation. The development of this EA by WS and the cooperating agencies will assist in determining if the proposed management of predation on nesting bird populations along the coastal islands and coastal areas of the State could have a significant impact on the environment for both humans and other organisms. The EA will also assist with identifying and addressing issues associated with managing predation risks. In addition, the EA will analyze alternative approaches to address those issues. This EA will also be a planning document