AN EXPLORATORY CASE STUDY OF HUI, TIBETAN, AND UYGHUR COLLEGE STUDENT ACCULTURATION IN A PREDOMINANTLY HAN PUBLIC RESEARCH INSTITUTION OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN CENTRAL CHINA A Dissertation by DIEGO JOSE GARCIA Submitted to the Office of Graduate and Professional Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Chair of Committee, Yvonna S. Lincoln Co-Chair of Committee, Elsa M. Gonzalez y Gonzalez Committee Members, Christine A. Stanley Antonio C. La Pastina Head of Department, Fredrick Nafukho August 2016 Major Subject: Educational Administration Copyright 2016 Diego Jose Garcia ABSTRACT Even though the People’s Republic of China has instituted national policies to provide greater higher education access to Chinese ethnic minorities and facilitate greater maintenance of ethnic minority cultures, limited research exists that examines acculturation and stress coping processes of ethnic minority college students, particularly Hui, Tibetan, and Uyghur students, as they transition from their native communities and autonomous regions to predominantly Han public research institutions of higher education located in urban areas of Central China. The purpose of the study is to deconstruct the acculturation experiences of Hui, Tibetan, and Uyghur college students enrolled in a predominantly Han public research university in Central China. A discourse on acculturation experiences of ethnic minority college students in predominantly Han universities is critical to developing institutional policies that embrace cultural sensitivity of ethnic minority students in China; adequately represent the heritage of ethnic minorities and help them preserve their cultural integrity; link the content of the education to ethnic minorities’ values and worldviews; and ensure that ethnic minorities have the academic and social support in their institutions of higher learning. The methodological framework that informed the study is a contructivist, naturalistic perspective. The sample consisted of 29 respondents of which 22 were Hui, Tibetan, and Uyghur Xi’an Jiaotong University students, and seven Xi’an Jiaotong University staff. Data was derived primarily from two sources: interviews with ii respondents; and observations of participants and campus of Xi’an Jiaotong University prior to, during, and after interview sessions. Salient conclusions of the researcher included: Cultural distance is a significant moderating factor impacting how Hui, Tibetan, and Uyghur respondents adapt to a predominantly Han university in Central China; the narratives of most Tibetan and Uyghur respondents portrayed a campus climate that is indifferent to their feelings of isolation and loneliness, and where Uyghur students, in particular, prominently encountered microagressions, passive discrimination and exclusion; Uyghur and Tibetan students have lost confidence in their academic abilities and experience dejection due to rigorous academic demands, partly due to their lack of English and Mandarin proficiency; Xi’an Jiaotong University does not provide sufficient academic and social support to Tibetan and Uyghur students. iii DEDICATION I dedicate this study to my wife and daughter whose untiring encouragement and loving support kept my eyes fixed on the grand summit of the doctoral journey. I am eternally indebted to my mother and father for their unconditional love from which I mustered the strength to embark on this journey. I honor my grandparents, especially my grandfather, Papuli, who knew the importance of lifelong learning, and whose words, “put your head down and learn something”, have resonated with me since my teenage years. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to recognize my dissertation committee Co-Chairs, Dr. Yvonna S. Lincoln and Dr. Elsa Gonzalez y Gonzalez, whose advice, guidance and mentorship aided the writing of this study in immeasurable ways. I also wish to thank my dissertation committee members, Dr. Christine A. Stanley and Dr. Antonio C. La Pastina, for their unwavering support while I pursued a PhD degree at Texas A&M University. I acknowledge my dear colleague, Dr. Marisa Suhm, for her insightful comments and valuable contributions during the making of this dissertation. I extend my most profound gratitude to the Hui, Tibetan, and Uyghur participants of this study, whose voices will give courage and hope to other shao shu minzu students in China. I offer my sincere appreciation to the students, staff, and leaders of Xi’an Jiaotong University, particularly Dr. Gong Hui, who generously supported my dissertation over the last three years. Agradezco inmensamente el amor que me han brindado mis hermanos (Mickey, Niza y Monica), y doy gracias por la amistad de los Bros (Mike Apel, Francisco Cuadros, Santiago Garcés, Gabriel Montenegro, Práxedes Rivera y Oswaldo Voysest), Felipe Errázuriz y Kevin Rhodes, quienes me han apoyado desde mi juventud y han compartido conmigo los momentos más felices de mi vida. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................. ii DEDICATION ......................................................................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ........................................................................................ v TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................... vi LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................... x LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................... xi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 1 Statement of the Problem ............................................................................. 5 Purpose of the Study .................................................................................... 6 Conceptual Framework ................................................................................. 8 Research Questions ....................................................................................... 13 Significance of the Study, and Objectives .................................................... 14 Contents of the Study .................................................................................... 16 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE ............................................................ 17 Ethnic Minority Acculturation Research in Higher Education in China ....................................................................................... 17 Educational Context: Relevant Ethnic Minority Research in Primary and Secondary Schools in China ................................................ 22 Cultural Context: Hui, Tibetan, Uyghur Culture .......................................... 26 Historical Context: Overview of Hui, Tibetan, and Uyghur Socioeconomic Conditions ....................................................... 33 Religious Context: Significance of Religion among Hui, Uyghur, and Tibetan Populations ......................................................... 35 Political Context: China’s Policies toward Ethnic Minority Populations Post-World War II ......................................... 39 Higher Education Context: Brief History of Higher Education in China Prior to 1911 ................................................................. 48 Higher Education in China Post-1911 and Ethnic Minority College Enrollment ....................................................................... 49 Higher Education Financing in China since 1978 ........................................ 55 vi College Access and Affordability Barriers for Minorities in China ....................................................................................... 57 CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY ........................................................................... 62 Employing Naturalistic Inquiry .................................................................... 62 Research Design ........................................................................................... 66 Site selection, respondents, and sampling ........................................ 69 Introducing the study to respondents and developing interview questions ........................................................ 74 Data Collection ............................................................................................. 75 Interviews ......................................................................................... 76 Observations ..................................................................................... 78 Records and documents .................................................................... 79 Researcher reflexivity ...................................................................... 79 Member checking ............................................................................. 80 Peer debriefing ................................................................................. 81 Assurance of confidentiality ............................................................. 82 Data Analysis ............................................................................................... 82 Unitizing data ................................................................................... 83 Coding .............................................................................................