Carnegie Mellon University MARIANNA BROWN DIETRICH COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES DISSERTATION Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements Doctor of Philosophy For the Degree of New Actresses and Urban Publics in Early Republican Beijing Title Jiacheng Liu Presented by History Accepted by the Department of Donald S. Sutton August 1, 2015 Readers (Director of Dissertation) Date Andrea Goldman August 1, 2015 Date Paul Eiss August 1, 2015 Date Approved by the Committee on Graduate Degrees Richard Scheines August 1, 2015 Dean Date NEW ACTRESSES AND URBAN PUBLICS OF EARLY REPUBLICAN BEIJING by JIACHENG LIU, B.A., M. A. DISSERTATION Presented to the Faculty of the College of the Marianna Brown Dietrich College of Humanities and Social Sciences of Carnegie Mellon University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY CARNEGIE MELLON UNIVERSITY August 1, 2015 Acknowledgements This dissertation would not have been possible without the help from many teachers, colleages and friends. First of all, I am immensely grateful to my doctoral advisor, Prof. Donald S. Sutton, for his patience, understanding, and encouragement. Over the six years, the numerous conversations with Prof. Sutton have been an unfailing source of inspiration. His broad vision across disciplines, exacting scholarship, and attention to details has shaped this study and the way I think about history. Despite obstacle of time and space, Prof. Andrea S. Goldman at UCLA has generously offered advice and encouragement, and helped to hone my arguments and clarify my assumptions. During my six-month visit at UCLA, I was deeply affected by her passion for scholarship and devotion to students, which I aspire to emulate in my future career. Prof. Paul Eiss, with his keen theoretical insight, opened my mind to new ways to think about performance and theater. I only regret not having been able to tap more effectively the remarkable intellectual source that he has offered as a perceptive historian and anthropologist. Besides my committee, I am indebated to many other professors for their advice at various stages of the project. Prof. Donna Harsch’s seminar on gender in comparative perspectives stimulated my interest in gender history. Prof. Elisabeth Kaske read two chapters and offered constructive criticism. Prof. Ying Zhang at Ohio State University warmly welcomed me to her class on Chinese literati and generously offered me accommodation when I travled to Columbus. During my visit at Harvard University, Prof. Michael Szonyi and Prof. Mark Elliot not only welcomed me to their class but also gave constructive criticism on my dissertation prospectus. On many occasions when I lost my way, a conversation with Prof. Lu Xiqi at Xiamen University over the phone never failed i to relieve me of unnecessary anxiety and self-doubt, not to mention his constructive criticsm on two chapters and great assistance for my archival work in China. Also at Xiamen University, Prof. Liu Yonghua gave me invaluable advice on the themes and structure of this study. Over the years I have had the pleasure and good fortune to be surrounded by wonderful colleagues and friends in the History Department at CMU. Among them, I owe special thanks to Yan Gao, whose warmth and friendship smoothened my adaptation to a Western way of life; John Weigel, who not only read and commented on part of the dissertation and offered grammatical corrections but also cheered me up with a variety of board games and movies at times when I was stressed out; and Jay Roszman, who shared with me writing samples, teaching experience, and job information, and with his wife Rachel, took me to theater, hiking and nice food. The completion of this dissertation also benefited from a few friends and family members who provided great assistance to push the project along. I drafted the first chapter in Boston while I was visiting Harvard for the spring semester, 2013. There, Haijing Hao, a friend I knew from CMU and then an assistant professor at University of Massachusetts, provided me not only a lovely place to stay but also stimulating everyday conversation; and Chen Guiming, then a visiting student at Harvard, offered much-needed help to access the Harvard-Yenching library. I drafted the third chapter in Xiamen after a one- month archive work in Beijing. Prof. Lu Xiqi and his wife Mrs. Chen Qinfen offered me a quiet study half way up the Wulao Mountain and perfect for writing and contemplation. I drafted the fourth and fifth chapters at Emory University, where my sister Mingzhun Liu and brother-in-law Wenliang Lei offered the emotional support during the most ii stressful period of writing. During the visit at UCLA, I got the warmest reception and support from a group of colleagues and friends whose scholarly passion and friendly warmth still brighten me up long after I left LA. The numerous conversations with Chi Xiang, Roanna Cheung, Hsiao-chun Wu, and Lee Sun Kyu in various ways informed my reflection on this study and writing of the introduction and conclusion. During my several visits at Penn State College, Hongyan Xiang, my classmate and friend from my alma mater Wuhan University and now a professor at Colorado State University, received me with great hospitality and shared her successful experience in research, teaching, and job hunting. This project has received financial support from various intramural and extramural agencies. The grants I received from Carnegie Mellon University Graduate Student Assembly, the Provost's Office, and History Department sponsored my trips to many archives and libraries. A dissertation fellowship from the Asian Students Association supported my six-month visit and writing at UCLA. I would like to acknowledge as well the assistance of the following individuals and institutions: Mr. Xiao-He Ma, librarian for the Chinese Collection at Harvard-Yenching library; Ms. Xiuying Zhou, librarian for the East Asian Library at University of Pittsburgh; Mr. Fan Zhengming, playwright and former president of Hunan Theater Association; Mr. Lu Yingkun, professor at Communication University of China. Finally, thanks go to my father Liu Baolu, who as a diligent playwright has inspired me to enter and explore the field of Chinese theater, and my mother Xi Yuanxiu, who has given me endless loving care. Without their affection and support, I couldn’t have gone so far to pursue a doctorate in United States. iii Abstract This dissertation is a study of the social and cultural history of the new actresses in early Republican Beijing. It shows that the female players, previously banned by the Qing dynasty, entered into a male-dominated profession and carved out a niche for themselves in the highly competitive entertainment business. As they stepped out of the inner quarters and became illustrious opera stars, actresses placed themselves at the center of multiple gazes and discourses. Displaying their physical charm and artistic talent on stage, they became agents of theatrical innovation and developed a distinctive repertoire and performance style. From stage to social life, the early actresses fashioned new femininities that deviated from both Confucian sentimentalism and the May Fourth notion of supreme love. They played a critical role in the formation of a variety of urban publics and animated a dynamic social process of negotiation between the traditional and the modern, the public and the private, the regional and the national, as well as between the personal and the communal. iv CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................ 1 PART I. THE PROFESSION .................................................................................................... 23 CHAPTER 1. THE EMERGENCE OF ACTRESSES AND THE ORGANIZATION OF ALL-FEMALE TROUPES IN BEIJING ............................................................................................... 24 PART II. THE STAGE .............................................................................................................. 82 CHAPTER 2. ROLES OF TRANSGRESSION: FEMALE HEROINES AND THEIR EMBODIMENT IN TRADITIONAL DRAMA ............................................................................................ 83 CHAPTER 3. THE NEW DRAMA REPERTOIRE: DIVERSITY, HYBRIDITY AND THE PROLIFERATION OF FEMALE ROLES ..................................................................... 117 PART III. THE SOCIETY ...................................................................................................... 149 CHAPTER 4. POLICE, PRESS, PATRONS, AND ACTRESSES' NEGOTIATION OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE LIFE ....................................................................................................... 150 CHAPTER 5. WRITING ON STAR ACTRESSES: POLITICS, MORALITY, AND LITERATI FANDOM IN EARLY REPUBLICAN BEIJING ............................................................ 195 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................... 243 APPENDICES ........................................................................................................................... 262 BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................................... 265 v List of Tables and Figures Figure 1-1. Outline Sketch of the Inner City and the Outer City and the Playhouse Districts of Qianmen, Tianqiao & Dong’an Market