distribute or post, copy, imageBROKER/Alamy Stock Photo not Do 11 GENDER AND SEXUALITY 224 Copyright ©2021 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher Chapter 11 • Gender and Sexuality 225 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, you should be able to: 11.1 Discuss the complexities of sex as described by anthropologists. 11.2 Discuss the complexities of gender as described by anthropologists. 11.3 Discuss the variations of transgender and LGBTQ persons found by anthropologists in different societies. 11.4 Describe the gender relations in foraging societies. 11.5 Discuss the importance of Margaret Mead’s study of gender relations in Papua New Guinea. 11.6 Describe gender relations and patriarchy in tribal societies. 11.7 Discuss gender in chiefdom societies. 11.8 Discuss gender and patriarchy in agricultural states. 11.9 Discuss the changes in gender in industrial and postindustrial societies. 11.10 Discuss gender relations in Latin America, Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. 11.11 What have anthropologists learned about sexuality in different societies?distribute or his chapter will discuss the anthropological research is based on the beliefs of the people of the groups being stud- on gender and sexuality by using a broad cross-cultural ied, while an etic understanding is based on the scientific Tand global perspective. In Chapter 10, we discussed the analysis offered by the anthropologist. social structure, including family, marriage, and age. There is some overlap in the discussion of social structure with the topic of gender relations as presented in this chapter. For THE COMPLEXITIES OF SEX example, in Chapter 10, we discussed the research on post,patrilin- eal, matrilineal, ambilineal, and bilateral forms of descent that 11.1 Discuss the complexities of sex as described by anthropologists. anthropologists have found in many societies. As we will see in this chapter, these patterns of descent have an influence on When anthropologists discuss relationships between males and gender relations, especially on the cultural norms and values females in a society, they distinguish between sex and gender. that have an impact on male and female relationships. We dis- Sex refers to the biological and anatomical differences between cuss both classical and contemporary anthropological research males and females. These differences include the primary sex- on this topic. However, this chaptercopy, goes beyond the research ual characteristics—the sex organs—and the secondary sexual regarding males and females to describe the wide variation in characteristics, such as breasts and wider hips for females and gender roles found in different societies throughout the world. more muscular development of the upper torso, larger body In addition to the variation in gender roles discussed, we go on size, and extensive body hair for males. Note that these are gen- to examine thenot cross-cultural differences in human sexuality eral tendencies, to which many exceptions exist. That is, many that anthropologists have found in various societies. males are smaller and lighter and have less body hair than many We begin the chapter with an overview of the complexities females. Nevertheless, in general, males and females are univer- that anthropologists find when examining sex and gender. In sally distinguished by physiological and anatomical differences previousDo chapters, we addressed the role of biology and cul- (Stone 2013). And, as discussed in Chapter 1 (pp. 15–16), ture in the formation of human behavior. This chapter will young children easily acquire “essentialist” beliefs about males continue to draw on this biocultural orientation in present- and females. ing the complexities of sex and gender. Additionally, read- Although the vast majority of human bodies can be recog- ers should keep in mind the distinction between etic and nized as belonging to one of two biological sexes, there are some emic approaches used by anthropologists (see Chapter 7, complexities of sex differences. Normally, humans have forty-six pp. 125–126). An emic understanding of gender and sexuality chromosomes, of which two—X and Y—are sex chromosomes. Copyright ©2021 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher 226 Part II • Studying Different Societies A woman’s large gametes (eggs) each carry one X, and a man’s small gametes (sperm) have about an equal division between those with an X and those with a Y. When the sperm and egg fuse, the sexual destiny of the fertilized fetus is determined. Usu- ally, males have an X and a Y chromosome (XY), and females have two Xs (XX). After about six weeks of fetal development, a biochemical structure called the indifferent gonad will eventually produce the sex differences for female ovaries or male testes. The Y chromosome plays the key sex-determining role. Typically, one gene carried on the Y chromosome stimulates biochemical changes that produce testes and the hormone (androgen) testos- terone, which influences the development of male primary and secondary sex characteristics. If the Y chromosome is absent, the indifferent gonad produces the ovaries and the hormone estro- gen or progesterone, which produces female primary and sec- ondary sex characteristics. However, in some individual cases, the genes can produce what is called androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS), when even in the presence of a Y chromosome, female external genitalia can appear. AIS is an intersex genetic condition that distribute Sport Madison/GettyDavid Images results in the inability of the cell to respond to male hormones or androgens. Thus, a person with AIS and XY can have either male or female genitalia and sometimes something in between. In other cases, there may be mismatches between external or appearance (the phenotype) and the genes on sex chromo- somes (the genotype). Individuals can sometimes have the XX sex chromosomes; however, they appear externally as males. Thus, a fertilized human egg that is XY can end up producing Melissa (Missy) Marlowe, an Olympic gymnast with Turner syndrome. an individual who looks like a female, and one that is XX can produce someone who looks like a male. post, Other possible combinations of two sex chromosomes can is based on experience and folk beliefs held by members of dif- produce intermediate sexes with external genitalia, individuals ferent societies such as wearing warm clothing in cold weather or who have a penis and ovaries or a vagina with testes. In some rare carrying an umbrella if it is raining. Geertz describes how in the occurrences, individuals who have Turner syndrome have just United States every so often an individual is born with both male one X chromosome (XO). These individuals have the bodies of and female genitalia. These intersexed individuals were viewed women. (All humans must have an X chromosome to produce with horror and disgust by many Americans, and most American sufficient biochemical processes to sustain life.)copy, Although Turner parents of these intersexed infants agreed immediately to have syndrome can result in short stature or other medical problems, a elective surgery to correct this abnormality. However, Geertz world-class Belgian-born American gymnast, Missy Marlowe, who noted that such intersexed individuals are viewed differently by participated in the Olympics in Seoul, Korea, in 1988, has this the Native American Navajo, who express wonder and awe toward condition. Turner syndromenot occurs in between 1 in 2,000 and 1 them as gifted spiritual leaders. Thus, common sense and normal- in 5,000 live-born females (Donaldson et al. 2006). In other cases, ity differ in respect to sex differences across the world. there are individuals with extra X chromosomes. They can be XXY As these complexities of sex differences indicate, there are or XXX. If individuals with these extra Xs have a Y chromosome, questions that arise regarding whether sex is completely binary they will appearDo male; if not, they will appear female. based on biological differences. A recent essay by biological In general, the number of people with a mismatch between anthropologist Alexandra Kralick (2018) questions the absolute chromosomes and hormones, or with ambiguous genitalia, is binary of sex differences based on anatomical sex differences. small, under 1 percent. But in a world population of 7 billion peo- During the early years of athletic competition in the Olympics, ple, a fraction of 1 percent is still a lot of individuals. In comparing female athletes had to have their genitals inspected to deter- “common sense” and “normality” across various societies, the late mine if they were truly female. Later, in the 1960s, the Olym- anthropologist Clifford Geertz (1983) gave an example regarding pic officials began to test for sex chromosomes through blood the complexities of sex differences. He compares commonsense tests. Kralick begins her essay by describing the case of María knowledge as it differs from scientific knowledge. Common sense José Martínez-Patiño, an Olympic track and field athlete for the Copyright ©2021 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher Chapter 11 • Gender and Sexuality 227 Spanish national team who medaled during the mid-1980s. She not mean that males are more intelligent than females. If absolute was externally entirely female and did not have unusually high brain size mattered in determining intelligence, whales would testosterone levels for a woman. However, when tested for sex be much more intelligent than humans (Konner 2015). When chromosomes, the results came back as XY instead of XX. Based comparing the proportional and relative size of the body and on these test results, Martínez-Patiño was ejected from the Olym- brains of whales and humans, we find that humans have much pics, and her records and medals were taken from her because of larger brains than whales.