FORGING AN ATLANTIC WORLD: AN HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF AFRICAN-EUROPEAN TRADE IN METALWARES by Nicole Lea Hamann BA., The College of William and Mary, 2003 A thesis submitted to the Department of Anthropology College of Arts and Sciences The University of West Florida In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts 2007 @ 2007 Nicole Lea Hamann The thesis of Nicole Lea Hamann is approved: _______________________________________________ __________________ Gregory D. Cook, M.A., Committee Member Date _______________________________________________ __________________ Matthew J. Clavin, Ph.D., Committee Member Date _______________________________________________ __________________ John R. Bratten, Ph.D., Committee Chair Date Accepted for the Department/Division: _______________________________________________ __________________ Judith A. Bense, Ph.D., Chair Date Accepted for the College: _______________________________________________ __________________ Jane S. Halonen, Ph.D., Dean Date Accepted for the University: _______________________________________________ __________________ Richard S. Podemski, Ph.D., Dean of Graduate Studies Date iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Saying that this thesis would not have been possible without the support of a large number of people is an understatement. I am indebted and grateful to Dr. Christopher DeCorse from Syracuse University and Mr. Gregory Cook for the opportunity to experience Ghana, the Elmina wreck, and archaeology in an international setting. The skills and knowledge I gained, while diving and beyond, are immeasurable. Also, I’d like to thank the whole gang for making the trip such a rewarding experience. Work on this thesis truly began in the conservation lab and a new set of people deserves my deepest gratitude. Dr. Bratten, not only did you teach me so much during my coursework at UWF, but you let me loose in your lab and remained ever so patient with my questions and with the unimaginable levels of noise! Mav and Wayne, I cannot thank you enough for making the lab such an enjoyable place in which to work, hang-out, and generally “live.” Thanks also to the various conservation students who helped turn concreted basins into beautiful, shining vessels. Special thanks to Cameron and Josh for such amazing artistic abilities and for bringing my own small amounts up to new heights. Although I basically lived in the lab, thanks to Keith, Kristin, the dinner crew - Kendra, Siska, Carrie, Nic, the guys at MSC, especially Steve, and everyone else that I have met since my time at UWF began for providing support, laughs, great food, and good times. Paul, you were the first person I met in the department and I cannot thank you enough for iv all of our chats, the advice, the help (thanks also to Sarah White), and the mylar! Then there are the non-UWFers, especially my parents, Kimber and Jon, Megs, Ry, Steph, and Carson. It has been a rougher road than any of us could have imagined, but despite the sorrow and heartbreak, you have given me the support and strength to see this through. Carson, there is so much to say and so much I have to thank you for that the confines of this page just will not do. For now, I will thank you for all the help, for improving my writing style with your editing, for listening to my ideas, for offering new perspectives, and for being my light. The distance ends, the dreams begin. My committee has been more than patient, understanding, and helpful throughout this process. I cannot thank you enough, Dr. Bratten, Greg Cook, and Dr. Clavin, for your unique contributions to this work. And, I truly appreciate all of the behind-the-scenes help that I received from Karen, Cindi, and Lee. Finally, I am appreciative to the Pat and Hal Marcus Fellowship in Historical Archaeology presented through The University of West Florida’s Anthropology Department and Archaeology Institute for the financial support. I am so honored to have received the Marcus Fellowship. I hope this thesis perpetuates that honor. v DEDICATION In memory of Jennifer Lynn Hamann and the love, laughter, music, and magic she brought to all she knew. She always believed and I will always remember. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................... iv DEDICATION ....................................................... vi LIST OF TABLES ...................................................... x LIST OF FIGURES.. ................................................... xi ABSTRACT ......................................................... xiii CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION .................................... 1 CHAPTER II. RESEARCH DESIGN ................................. 6 A. Methodology ...................................... 7 1. Historical Methods ............................ 8 a. Primary Sources ........................ 9 b. Secondary Sources ..................... 15 2. Archaeological Methods ...................... 18 CHAPTER III. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND................................................. 23 A. Europeans in West Africa ........................... 24 B. Control of Elmina ................................. 30 C. African-European Interaction and Identity .............. 31 D. Control of West African Trade ...................... 36 E. World Systems Theory in the West African Context .............................. 40 F. Exchanging European Trade Goods ................... 44 G. Ties to the Industrial Revolution ...................... 49 H. Summary ........................................ 51 CHAPTER IV. ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXT ...................... 52 A. Previous Research ................................. 52 B. Nautical Archaeology .............................. 59 vii C. The Elmina Wreck ................................ 60 1. General Artifact Information ...................... 66 D. Summary ........................................ 67 CHAPTER V. THE MANUFACTURE, SUPPLY, AND DEMAND OF METALWARES IN WEST AFRICAN TRADE ........... 69 A. Introduction ...................................... 69 B. West African Metallurgy ............................ 70 1. Archaeological Evidence for West African Metallurgy ......................... 70 C. Brass ........................................... 76 1. Symbolic Power and Cultural Value ................ 76 2. Physical Properties .............................. 77 3. Brass in European Society ........................ 78 D. Pewter .......................................... 87 1. Physical Properties .............................. 88 2. Pewter in the Archaeological Record ................ 89 3. Pewter in the Historical Record .................... 90 4. Manufacture of Pewter ........................... 92 E. Summary ........................................ 98 CHAPTER VI. ANALYSIS AND RESULTS ......................... 100 A. Introduction ..................................... 100 B. Archaeological Typology .......................... 101 C. Pewter and Brass in the Documentary Record .......... 104 1. Neptunes .................................... 107 2. Bowls, Cups, and Pots .......................... 108 3. Pans ........................................ 109 4. Kettles ...................................... 110 5. Basins/Basons ................................ 111 6. Dishes and Plates .............................. 112 D. Elmina Wreck Metalwares ......................... 113 1. Catalogue .................................... 116 2. Brass ........................................ 119 a. Artifact #304a-c and Artifact #305a-f ........... 120 b. Artifact #316 .............................. 123 c. Artifact #317a-k ............................ 125 d. Artifact #330 .............................. 125 e. Artifact #332a-m ........................... 125 f. Artifact #350a-c ............................ 127 g. Artifact #358a-h ............................ 127 h. Artifact #386a-e ............................ 130 i. Artifact #409 (redeposited) ................... 130 viii j. 2003a-e ................................... 130 3. Pewter ...................................... 130 a. Artifact #319a-r ............................ 130 b. Artifact #357 .............................. 131 c. Artifact #365 .............................. 131 d. Artifact #379 .............................. 135 e. Artifact #408 .............................. 135 4. Other Metalwares ............................. 135 a. Artifact #370 .............................. 135 E. Elmina Wreck Site Typology ....................... 135 1. Type #1 ..................................... 138 2. Type #2 ..................................... 140 3. Type #3 ..................................... 140 4. Type #4 ..................................... 143 5. Type #5 ..................................... 143 6. Type #6 ..................................... 146 7. Type #7 ..................................... 148 F. Diagnostic Features ............................... 150 1. Metallurgical Results ........................... 150 2. Styles and Features ............................. 154 3. Marking Systems .............................. 156 4. Elmina Wreck Makers’ Marks .................... 161 G. Summary ....................................... 162 CHAPTER VI. COMPARISONS AND DISCUSSION .................. 164 A. Introduction ..................................... 164 B. Metalwares in Europe ............................. 165 C. Mealwares as Cargo .............................. 166 D. The Functions of Cuprous Metals in West African Society ........................... 169 E. Functions of Metal Commodities