Acknowledgements Thank you to all of the reviewers, editors, and graphic designers that made this report possible: Jennifer DeLeon Vicki Frey Melissa Foley Madalaine Jong Kelly Keen Cy Oggins Carrie Pomeroy Erin Prahler Sarah Sugar Cover Photo Storm Surf Courtesy of James Fortman Contents Tables ........................................................................................................................................................... iv Figures .......................................................................................................................................................... iv Use of Terms ................................................................................................................................................ vi Acronyms ..................................................................................................................................................... vii Summary Table........................................................................................................................................... viii 1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 1-1 2 Matrix ................................................................................................................................................. 2-1 3 Offshore Energy Potential of California and Project Siting ............................................................... 3-1 3.1 Wave Energy Siting .................................................................................................................... 3-1 3.2 Tidal Energy Siting ..................................................................................................................... 3-3 3.3 Wind Energy Siting..................................................................................................................... 3-4 3.4 Tools for Siting ........................................................................................................................... 3-4 4 Types of MRE Technologies ............................................................................................................... 4-1 4.1 Wave Energy Converters ............................................................................................................ 4-1 4.1.1 Oscillating Water Columns (OWCs) ...................................................................................... 4-2 4.1.2 Attenuators .............................................................................................................................. 4-3 4.1.3 Overtopping Devices .............................................................................................................. 4-4 4.1.4 Point Absorbers ....................................................................................................................... 4-5 4.1.5 Oscillating Wave Surge Converter (OWSC) .......................................................................... 4-7 4.2 Tidal Energy Converters ............................................................................................................. 4-8 4.2.1 Axial Flow Turbines ............................................................................................................... 4-9 4.2.2 Cross Flow Turbines ............................................................................................................. 4-10 4.2.3 Reciprocating Devices .......................................................................................................... 4-11 4.3 Offshore Wind Turbines ........................................................................................................... 4-12 4.3.1 Current Commercial Devices ............................................................................................... 4-12 5 Environmental Impacts of Marine Renewable Energy ....................................................................... 5-1 5.1 Aesthetics .................................................................................................................................... 5-2 5.1.1 Offshore Wind Turbines ......................................................................................................... 5-2 5.2 Agriculture and Forestry (Aquaculture and Commercial Fisheries) ........................................... 5-3 5.3 Aquaculture................................................................................................................................. 5-3 5.3.1 Reduction in Wave Energy .................................................................................................... 5-3 5.3.2 Reduction in Tidal Energy ..................................................................................................... 5-3 5.4 Commercial Fishing .................................................................................................................... 5-3 i 5.4.1 Siting Impacts ......................................................................................................................... 5-4 5.5 Biological Resources................................................................................................................... 5-5 5.5.1 Reduction in Wave Energy .................................................................................................... 5-5 5.5.2 Reduction in Tidal Energy ..................................................................................................... 5-6 5.5.3 Hard Structures and Mooring Lines ....................................................................................... 5-6 5.5.4 Release of Antifouling Compounds and Other Chemicals .................................................. 5-12 5.5.5 Electromagnetic Fields (EMF) ............................................................................................... 5-13 5.5.6 Acoustics ............................................................................................................................... 5-17 5.5.7 Oscillating Water Column .................................................................................................... 5-20 5.5.8 Overtopping Device ............................................................................................................. 5-20 5.5.9 Oscillating Wave Surge Converter ....................................................................................... 5-21 5.5.10 Axial Flow and Cross Flow Turbines .............................................................................. 5-21 5.5.11 Reciprocating Devices ...................................................................................................... 5-23 5.5.12 Offshore Wind Turbines ................................................................................................... 5-23 5.6 Cultural Resources and Tribal Uses ......................................................................................... 5-25 5.6.1 Cultural Sites ........................................................................................................................ 5-25 5.6.2 Tribes and Tribal Communities ............................................................................................ 5-25 5.7 Geology/Soils ............................................................................................................................ 5-26 5.7.1 Reduction in Wave Energy .................................................................................................. 5-26 5.7.2 Reduction in Tidal Energy ................................................................................................... 5-26 5.7.3 Hard Structures and Mooring Lines ..................................................................................... 5-26 5.7.4 Oscillating Water Columns .................................................................................................. 5-27 5.7.5 Overtopping Devices ............................................................................................................ 5-27 5.8 Hazards and Hazardous Materials ........................................................................................... 5-28 5.8.1 Reduction in Tidal Energy ................................................................................................... 5-28 5.8.2 Physical Hazards .................................................................................................................. 5-28 5.8.3 Release of Antifouling Compounds and other Chemicals ................................................... 5-28 5.9 Hydrology/Water Quality ......................................................................................................... 5-29 5.9.1 Reduction in Wave Energy .................................................................................................. 5-29 5.9.2 Reduction in Tidal Energy ................................................................................................... 5-29 5.9.3 Tsunami Impacts ................................................................................................................... 5-30 5.9.4 Release of Antifouling Compounds and Other Chemicals .................................................. 5-31 5.10 Land Use/Planning .................................................................................................................... 5-32 5.11 Mineral Resources ...................................................................................................................