i RELIGION AND PEACEMAKING IN SIERRA LEONE Joseph Gaima Lukulay Moiba HCPS, Cand. Mag., PPU1&2, MA, Cand.Theol., PTE. Director of Studies: Prof. Bettina Schmidt, PhD, D.Phil. University of Wales: Trinity Saint David, Lampeter Second Supervisor: Dr Jenny Read-Heimerdinger, PhD, LicDD. University of Wales: Trinity Saint David, Lampeter STATEMENT: This research was undertaken under the auspices of the University of Wales: Trinity Saint David and was submitted in partial fulfilment for the award of PhD in the Faculty of Humanities and Performing Arts to the University of Wales: Trinity Saint David. SEPTEMBER 2016 ii Declaration This work has not previously been accepted as a whole or in part for any degree and has not been concurrently submitted for any degree. Signed: JGLMOIBAREV (Signed) (Candidate) Date: 8. 9. 2016 Statement 1 This thesis is the result of my own investigations, except where otherwise stated. Where correction services have been used, the extent and nature of the correction is clearly marked in a footnote(s). Other sources are acknowledged by footnote giving explicit references. A bibliography is appended. Signed: JGLMOIBAREV (Signed) (Candidate) Date: 8. 9. 2016 Statement 2 I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter-library loan, and for the title and abstract to be made available to outside organisations. Signed: JGLMOIBAREV (Signed) (Candidate) Date: 8. 9. 2016 iii Abstract: This thesis concerns religion as a peacemaking tool in Sierra Leone. The vast majority of people in Sierra Leone consider themselves to be Christians, Muslims and / or adherents of African Traditional Religion (ATR). This thesis examines the role of religious leaders and religious communities in the peacemaking process during and after the Sierra Leone Civil War from 1991 - 2002. In previous studies about violence and religion, the role of religion in the peacemaking process has often been neglected, particularly in studies about the African continent. This study aims to fill this gap. The research is based on theoretical approaches in the field of religion and violence and religion and peace, as well as a qualitative and an empirical study in Sierra Leone comprising participant observation, interviews and data collected from archives. The thesis develops the praxis of peace based on the Sierra Leone context. It argues that since independence from Britain in 1961, subsequent governments have woefully marginalised religion. The thesis demonstrates that Christian leaders, churches, and ecumenical organisations were resources that contributed to peacemaking in Sierra Leone. Christians and their leaders influenced by ATR also led and supported the works of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission Sierra Leone (TRCSL) and the Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL). Christians provided leadership for truth-telling and reconciliation, relief, advocacy for peace, and confidence-building as peacemakers in action. By combining a theoretical discussion of Girard, Juergensmeyer, Schmidt, Huntington, Bowie, Johnston and others with the qualitative and empirical case study of Sierra Leone, the research adds new dimensions to the general academic debate on religion and violence, as well as religion and peacemaking, with respect to the clash of civilisations, faith-based diplomacy and other theories on religion and violence, and religion and peacemaking, in Sierra Leone. iv Dedication I dedicate this thesis to my great-grandfather Chief Moibawo Lukulay, an Islamic scholar and businessman from Bontiwo, Lugbu Chiefdom, Bo District. I also dedicate this work to my beloved grandfather Junisa Mohamed Bangura, a Muslim and a businessman from Bontiwo, Lugbu Chiefdom, Bo District. You both loved me but God loves you most. Thank you for the love you showed me before God took you to the final resting place. v Table of Contents Declaration ..................................................................................................................................... ii Statement 1 .................................................................................................................................... ii Statement 2 .................................................................................................................................... ii Abstract: ........................................................................................................................................ iii Dedication ..................................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... v Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... ix List of Abbreviations ...................................................................................................................... x CHAPTER 1 RELIGION AND PEACEMAKING IN SIERRA LEONE ...................................................... 1 1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 The Research Questions and the Hypothesis .......................................................................... 2 1.2 Aims and Objectives of the Study ........................................................................................... 6 1.3 The Problem of Generalisation ............................................................................................... 7 1.4 Hypothesis and Theories on Peacemaking ............................................................................. 8 1.5 Approach to the Thesis ......................................................................................................... 10 1.6 Sierra Leone as a Unique Example? ...................................................................................... 12 1.7 Context and Accessibility of the Study .................................................................................. 13 1.7.1 Religious Structure of Sierra Leone ............................................................................... 16 1.8 The Concept of Peace in Religions ........................................................................................ 19 1.8.1 The Concept of Peace in Islam ....................................................................................... 20 1.8.2 The Concept of Peace in Christianity ............................................................................. 25 1.8.3 The Concept of Peace in African Traditional Religion .................................................... 30 1.9 Definitions of Key Terms ....................................................................................................... 47 1.9.1 Peacekeeping ................................................................................................................. 47 1.9.2 Peacemaking .................................................................................................................. 48 1.9.3 Peace Education ............................................................................................................ 49 1.9.4 Peacebuilding ................................................................................................................ 52 1.10 Thesis Chapters Overview ................................................................................................... 53 CHAPTER 2 MATERIAL AND METHODS ....................................................................................... 56 2.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 56 2.1 Literature Review .................................................................................................................. 59 2.2 Is religion inherently violent or peaceful? ............................................................................ 75 2.3 Methodology ......................................................................................................................... 78 vi 2.3.1 Empirical and Qualitative Research ............................................................................... 82 2.3.2 Discussion of the choice of interviewees ...................................................................... 84 2.3.2.1 The Context of the Interviewees ............................................................................. 87 2.3.2.2 Discussion of interviewees’ presentations and understanding of the interview process................................................................................................................................. 87 2.4 Validation and reliability of the research .............................................................................. 89 CHAPTER 3 SIERRA LEONE’S DESCENT INTO CIVIL WAR ............................................................. 92 3.0 Introduction: Sierra Leone Before and After 1989 ................................................................ 92 3.1 The Factors That Led to the War ........................................................................................... 92 3.1.1 Events from 1961 to March 1989 .................................................................................. 92 3.1.2 Events from April 1989 to 1997 ....................................................................................