DEMOCRATIC CONSOLIDATION IN GHANA AND NIGERIA: UNDERSTANDING THE ROLE OF THE POLITICAL ELITES A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Political Science at the University of Canterbury By Peter O. Nwokeke Supervisors: Professor Alexander Tan Assoc.Professor James Ockey Dr. Scott Walker DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE UNIVERSITY OF CANTERBURY, NEW ZEALAND 2019 i Table of contents ______________________________________________________________________ Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... v Abbreviations ......................................................................................................................................... ix Chapter One ............................................................................................................................................ 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Research Focus and Background of the Study ............................................................................ 1 1.2 Research Question ...................................................................................................................... 2 1.3 Profiles of Selected Countries ..................................................................................................... 3 1.3.1 The Ghanaian State ................................................................................................................. 3 1.3.2 The Nigerian State ................................................................................................................... 5 1.4 Plan of the Thesis ........................................................................................................................ 8 Chapter 2 ............................................................................................................................................... 11 Research dilemma, Historical Overview, Argument, Method and Design ........................................... 11 2.1 The Research Dilemma ............................................................................................................. 11 2.2 African Democracy: Historical Overview .................................................................................. 20 2.3 Research Argument ................................................................................................................... 30 2.4 Research Method and Design ................................................................................................... 35 2.4.1 Method of Data Collection: Interviews and Semi-Structured interviews ............................. 35 2.4.2 Sampled Countries Selection Procedure............................................................................... 38 Figure 1 Case Selection in Comparing Nigeria and Ghana ................................................................... 39 2.4.3 Research Design .................................................................................................................... 40 2.4.4 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 42 Chapter Three ....................................................................................................................................... 43 Rethinking Democracy Consolidation via Elite Commitment to Democracy and Elite Coherence ...... 43 3.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 43 3.1.2 Democratic Consolidation ..................................................................................................... 44 3.1.3 Elite Cohesion: Empirical Review .......................................................................................... 53 3.1.4 Commitment to Democracy: Literature Review ................................................................... 57 3.1.5 Theoretical Hypotheses ........................................................................................................ 67 3.6 Summary of Literature and Theoretical Reviews ...................................................................... 67 3.2 Democratic Consolidation: Conceptual Definition................................................................... 68 ii 3.2.1 Pseudo Democracy: Conceptual Definition ......................................................................... 70 3.2.2 Competitive Authoritarianism: Conceptual Definition ......................................................... 72 3.2.3 Consociational Democracy: Conceptual Definition .............................................................. 74 3.3 Theoretical Framework .................................................................................................................. 75 Figure 2. Elite Coherence and Democratic Commitment ..................................................................... 75 3.3.1 Elite Coherence: Conceptual Definition and Measurement ................................................ 75 Table 1 Coherence Index....................................................................................................................... 77 Table 2 Coherence Index Indicating Tolerance and Alliances/Coalitions. ............................................ 77 3.3.2 Elite Commitment to Democracy: Operational Definition and Measurement ..................... 78 Operational Definition .......................................................................................................................... 78 3.3.3 Independent Electoral Commission: Conceptual Definition and Measurement .................. 80 Table 3 Tenure, Appointment &Membership Structure of E C. ........................................................... 81 3.3.4 Party Financing: Conceptual Definition and Measurement .................................................. 82 Party Financing Measurement .............................................................................................................. 82 Table 4 Party Financing Measurement ................................................................................................. 83 3.3.5 Anti-Corruption: Conceptual Definition and Measurement ................................................. 84 Table 5 Anti-Corruption Measurement ................................................................................................ 86 Chapter 4 ............................................................................................................................................... 87 Resilient Coherence and Ethical Commitment to Democracy: Experience of Ghana Political Elites on Consolidation of Democracy. ................................................................................................................ 87 4.1 Elites Commitment to Democracy through Electoral Commission ................................................ 87 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 87 4.1.2 Elite Commitment to Democracy in Ghana via the Electoral Commission .................................. 88 4.1.3 Elite Commitment to Democracy and Party Financing ................................................................ 94 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 94 4.1.4 Elite Commitment to Democracy in Ghana via Party-Financing .................................................. 96 4.1.5 Elite Commitment to Democracy and Anti-Corruption ............................................................. 103 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 103 4.1.6 Elite Commitment to Democracy in Ghana through Anti-Corruption. ...................................... 104 4.2 Elite Coherence through Coalition/Alliances ................................................................................ 109 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 109 4.2.1 Coalition /Alliances through Elite Coherence in Ghana ............................................................. 111 4.2.2 Elite Coherence through Tolerance .......................................................................................... 117 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 117 iii 4.2.3 Elite Coherence through Tolerance in Ghana ............................................................................ 119 4.3 Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................................... 125 Chapter 5 ............................................................................................................................................. 127 Staying Coherence in a Degenerated Commitment to Democracy: The Case of Nigerian Political Elites and Consolidation of Democracy. ......................................................................................................