¡VIVXS LXS QUEREMOS! THE BATTLES FOR MEMORY AROUND THE DISAPPEARED IN MEXICO By María De Vecchi Gerli THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Institute of the Americas Faculty of Social & Historical Sciences University College London 2018 ORIGINALITY STATEMENT ‘I, María De Vecchi Gerli, confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated in the thesis.’ Signed: Date: 10 July 2018 2 DEDICATION To my parents, Milagros Gerli and Bruno De Vecchi, for being an endless source of inspiration, love and support To all those looking for their disappeared loved ones, with my utmost admiration 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS To my parents Milagros and Bruno. Without their love and support, this thesis would not exist. You are an inspiration. To Mateo, Sarai and Uma, for all the love and happiness they bring. To all the relatives of the disappeared and to the members of human rights organisations who shared their stories with me. More generally, to all those looking for a disappeared loved one and to all those accompanying them in their search for teaching me the most important lessons on love, strength, commitment, and congruence. I want to thank my supervisors, Dr Paulo Drinot and Professor Kevin Middlebrook for their guidance, careful reading and support throughout this project. Thank you both for taking me to the limits and for making this thesis better. Dr Par Engstrom has also been a permanent source of inspiration and support. To Mijael Jiménez. Because this dream is also yours and I could not have made it without you. Thank you for all your accompaniment and encouragement throughout this journey. To Laura Kolb, for all her help in so many levels in this thesis. This work and my life would not be the same without you. To all the PhD researchers at the Institute of the Americas and to the members of the UCL Americas Research Network. Also, to the academic and administration staff at the Institute of the Americas, for offering me a home during these years. To my families and friends in Mexico, Argentina and beyond; particularly to my friends in London, who have become family; you all know who you are and how much I love you. To my compañerxs at H.I.J.O.S. México and London Mexico Solidarity, and to all those with whom I have shared the dream of a better world, where many worlds fit. To Eugenia Allier, Alexander Aviña, Pilar Calveiro, Michael Chamberlin, Ana Covarrubias, Fabiola de Lachica, Silvia Dutrénit, Gabriel Gatti, Aurelia Gómez, Anne Huffschmid, Sylvia Karl, Michael Lazzara, Hettie Malcomson, Tanalís Padilla, Tom Pegram, Benjamin Smith, and Kate Quinn, for their help and comments on this work. To Guadalupe Pérez Rodríguez for his advice and support. To Mónica Serrano for her constant encouragement and guidance. This thesis was funded by the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (2013-2017) and by the Secretaría de Educación Pública (2014-2017). I also received funding from the UCL Institute of the 4 Americas (2016), the UCL Research Projects Fund for Research Students (2014), and the UCL Financial Assistance Fund (2017). 5 ABSTRACT This thesis analyses the battles for memory around the disappeared in Mexico by comparing the two main periods of disappearances, this is the period between the 1960s-1980s and that from the mid- 2000s onwards. Following a critical ethnography methodology with a psychosocial approach the thesis analyses memory realms (dates, categories used to name disappearances and memorials) created by memory entrepreneurs. The thesis focuses mainly on seven organisations of relatives of the disappeared. The contexts of the two periods mark the battles for memory. In the first period, framed by the government’s attack on political opponents, the relatives emphasised the state’s responsibility in the disappearances, and insisted on the liberation of the disappeared. The response of state actors was marked by denial and silence. The transitional justice measures taken during the change of government in 2000 perpetrated impunity and silence about disappearances. The second period is framed by the so-called ‘War on Drugs’, and is also inserted in a context where human rights discourses and institutions set a path for the relationships between the government and the relatives of the disappeared. Thus, relatives of the disappeared make specific demands to the government using a human rights discourse, whilst state actors fail to acknowledge the extent of the phenomenon and mainly blame disappearances on organised crime. Finally, the thesis analyses the impact of the enforced disappearance of 43 Ayotzinapa students on the broader issue of disappearances. This case had an effect of making other cases less prominent, whilst making the broader phenomenon of disappearances more visible. The low social will to remember, which has been a constant during the two periods, changed around this case. In a context where more than 37,000 persons are disappeared in Mexico, this thesis contributes to the necessity of understanding past and present disappearances. Keywords: Memory, disappearances, enforced disappearances, Mexico, memorials, human rights, transitional justice. 6 IMPACT STATEMENT This thesis examines the battles for memory around the disappeared in Mexico, analysing the two main periods in which these crimes have been committed and the relationships between the organisations of relatives of the disappeared and state actors from the 1970s onwards. The findings of this thesis could be directly put to beneficial use both in the academic and non-academic fields. In terms of academia, scholars around the world have studied the battles for memory around the disappeared and around state violence more broadly in Latin America and elsewhere. Within this academic production, the Mexican case has been neglected. This thesis then contributes to an ongoing debate over memory studies in the region and beyond. In the last years, there has been an increase in the mobilisation around disappearances and in the memorialisation around the disappeared in Mexico. As the first in-depth study in this matter, this thesis provides an overview of the current state of affairs, which will be most useful for those studying this topic in the future. According to official figures, at least thirteen persons disappeared every day in Mexico during 2016. The disappearance crisis has been acknowledged by international human rights bodies such as the United Nations Working Group on Enforced and Involuntary Disappearances and the UN Committee on Enforced Disappearances. In the national arena, a new Law on Enforced Disappearances and Disappearances Committed by Private Citizens was sanctioned in 2017. The topic of disappearances in Mexico is then more relevant than ever. This thesis will provide historical background on such cases to those looking to intervene on disappearances, as well as a specific analysis of how disappearances affect the lives of relatives of the disappeared. This work will also provide insight on memorials and dates in which the meanings of disappearances are in dispute. These topics will be useful for human rights organisations, state actors, international humanitarian bodies, and international governments wanting to comprehend and act upon the disappearance crisis in Mexico. The findings of this thesis, which will be accessible through academic and non-academic publications, could serve as a basis for public policies, human rights debates, etc. Besides this, being a unique study on memory and disappearances in Mexico, it could be included in curricula on this topic. As an expert on this topic, the author could also contribute in mainstream media debates on human rights in Mexico and on disappearances. Furthermore, this expertise could serve to develop and deliver training in this topic for national and international public servants. In the same regard, the expertise developed during the writing of this thesis could help people in the arts working on human rights and disappearances in Mexico and elsewhere. As I have shown, given its focus on a current and important topic, the findings of this research will be able to impact the academic and non-academic fields, serving as an important study for a diverse range of people in different sectors. 7 TABLE OF CONTENT Originality Statement ................................................................................................................... 2 Dedication ................................................................................................................................... 3 Acknowledgements...................................................................................................................... 4 Abstract ....................................................................................................................................... 6 Impact Statement ........................................................................................................................ 7 Table of Content .......................................................................................................................... 8 Table of Figures ......................................................................................................................... 11 Note on Language ...................................................................................................................... 13 Chapter 1 Introduction