INDUSTRIAL CHOCOLATE MANUFACTURE AND USE SSBeckett_FM.inddBeckett_FM.indd i 110/1/20080/1/2008 110:00:430:00:43 AAMM SSBeckett_FM.inddBeckett_FM.indd iiii 110/1/20080/1/2008 110:00:440:00:44 AAMM INDUSTRIAL CHOCOLATE MANUFACTURE AND USE Fourth Edition Edited by Stephen T. Beckett Formerly Nestlé PTC York, UK SSBeckett_FM.inddBeckett_FM.indd iiiiii 110/1/20080/1/2008 110:00:440:00:44 AAMM This edition fi rst published 2009 Third edition published 1999 Second edition published 1994 by Chapman and Hall First edition published 1988 by Chapman and Hall © 1999, 2009 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s publishing programme has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientifi c, Technical, and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell. 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ISBN-13: 978-1-4051-3949-6 (hardback : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 1-4051-3949-8 (hardback : alk. paper) 1. Chocolate. 2. Cocoa. I. Beckett, S.T. TP640.I53 2008 664.5—dc22 2008006200 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Set in 10/12 pt Palatino by Newgen Imaging Systems Pvt. Ltd, Chennai, India Printed in Singapore by Fabulous Printers Pte Ltd 1 2009 SSBeckett_FM.inddBeckett_FM.indd iivv 110/1/20080/1/2008 110:00:440:00:44 AAMM CONTENTS Preface xxii Contributors xxv 1 Traditional Chocolate Making 1 S.T. Beckett 1.1 History 1 1.2 Outline of process 2 1.2.1 Preparation of cocoa nib – fl avour development 4 1.2.2 Grinding – particle size reduction 4 1.2.3 Conching – fl avour and texture development 7 1.3 Concept of the book 8 References 9 2 Cocoa Beans: from Tree to Factory 10 M.S. Fowler 2.1 Introduction 10 2.2 Growing cocoa 10 2.2.1 Where cocoa is grown 10 2.2.2 Varieties of cocoa: Criollo, Forastero, Trinitario and Nacional 12 2.2.3 Climatic and environmental requirements 13 2.2.4 Propagation of the planting material 14 2.2.5 Establishment and development of the plants in the fi eld 14 2.2.6 Major pests and diseases 15 2.2.7 Flowering and pod development 15 2.2.8 Harvesting, pod opening and yields 17 2.2.9 Environmental aspects of cocoa cultivation 19 2.2.10 Labour practices on farms 19 2.3 Fermentation and drying 20 2.3.1 Fermentation 20 2.3.2 Microbiological aspects of fermentation 21 2.3.3 Development of cocoa fl avour precursors 21 2.3.4 Drying 23 v SSBeckett_FM.inddBeckett_FM.indd v 110/3/20080/3/2008 33:49:44:49:44 PPMM vi Contents 2.4 The cocoa supply chain 24 2.4.1 Internal market 25 2.4.2 International cocoa markets 25 2.4.3 Fairtrade 28 2.4.4 Shipment of cocoa 29 2.4.5 Moisture movement during shipment 29 2.4.6 Storage of cocoa 31 2.4.7 Infestation of cocoa 32 2.5 Quality assessment of cocoa 33 2.5.1 Composition of cocoa beans 33 2.5.2 Cocoa beans: quality aspects and contracts 33 2.5.3 Cocoa beans: sampling and the ‘cut test’ 37 2.5.4 Contaminants and residues 39 2.5.5 Cocoa butter hardness 39 2.5.6 Sensory evaluation 40 2.6 Types and origins of cocoa beans used in chocolate 40 2.6.1 Sources of bulk cocoas 40 2.6.2 Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast) 41 2.6.3 Ghana 41 2.6.4 Indonesia 42 2.6.5 Nigeria 43 2.6.6 Cameroon 43 2.6.7 Brazil 43 2.6.8 Ecuador 43 2.6.9 Speciality, origin and ‘fi ne’ or ‘fl avour’ cocoas 44 Conclusions 45 References and Further reading 46 Abbreviations/Acronyms/Websites 47 3 Sugar and Bulk Sweeteners 48 Ch. Krüger 3.1 Introduction 48 3.2 The production of sugar 48 3.3 Sugar qualities 50 3.4 The storage of sugar 51 3.5 Sugar grinding and the prevention of sugar dust explosions 53 3.6 Amorphous sugar 56 3.7 Other sugars and bulk sweeteners 57 3.7.1 Invert sugar 57 3.7.2 Glucose 58 3.7.3 Fructose 58 3.7.4 Tagatose 59 3.7.5 Lactose 60 SSBeckett_FM.inddBeckett_FM.indd vvii 110/3/20080/3/2008 33:49:44:49:44 PPMM Contents vii 3.7.6 Isomaltulose 60 3.7.7 Trehalose 60 3.7.8 Polydextrose 60 3.7.9 Inulin 61 3.7.10 Sorbitol 61 3.7.11 Mannitol 62 3.7.12 Xylitol 62 3.7.13 Erythritol 63 3.7.14 Maltitol 63 3.7.15 Maltitol syrup 64 3.7.16 Isomalt 64 3.7.17 Lactitol 64 3.8 Physiological characteristics of sugars and bulk sweeteners 65 3.9 The sweetening power of sugars and bulk sweeteners 67 3.10 Other sensory properties of sugars and bulk sweeteners 69 3.11 Solubilities and melting points of sugars and bulk sweeteners 70 3.12 Maximum conching temperatures of chocolate masses with different bulk sweeteners 71 Conclusions 72 References 73 Further reading 75 4 Ingredients from Milk 76 S.J. Haylock and T.M. Dodds 4.1 Introduction 76 4.2 Milk fat 79 4.2.1 Anhydrous milk fat 80 4.2.2 Flavour of milk fat 82 4.2.3 Interactions of milk fat and cocoa butter 83 4.2.4 Milk fat fractions 85 4.2.5 ‘Free’ and ‘bound’ milk fat 87 4.2.6 Bloom 89 4.3 Milk powder 90 4.3.1 Skim milk powder: non-fat dried milk 90 4.3.2 Whole milk powder 92 4.3.3 High-fat powders 94 4.3.4 Buttermilk powder 94 4.3.5 Formulated milk powders 95 4.3.6 Whey powders 96 4.4 Milk crumb 96 4.5 Lactose 97 4.6 New consumer requirements 98 SSBeckett_FM.inddBeckett_FM.indd vviiii 110/3/20080/3/2008 33:49:44:49:44 PPMM viii Contents Summary 98 Acknowledgements 99 References 99 5 Chocolate Crumb 101 M.A. Wells 5.1 Introduction and history 101 5.2 Benefi ts of milk crumb 102 5.3 Typical crumb recipes 103 5.4 Flavour development in chocolate crumb 103 5.5 Sugar crystallization during crumb manufacture 107 5.6 The structure of chocolate crumb 109 5.6.1 Crystallinity 109 5.6.2 Fat availability 110 5.6.3 Fat droplet size 110 5.6.4 Aeration 111 5.6.5 Overall particle size distribution 111 5.7 Typical crumb processes and equipment 112 5.7.1 Batch oven process 112 5.7.2 Continuous processes 113 5.8 Effect of the crumb process upon the crumb properties 117 5.9 Changes to crumb during storage 117 Conclusions 119 References 119 6 Production and Quality Standards of Cocoa Mass, Cocoa Butter and Cocoa Powder 121 H.J. Kamphuis 6.1 Introduction 121 6.2 Cleaning of cocoa beans 121 6.3 Removal of shell 122 6.4 Breaking and winnowing 124 6.5 Alkalization 126 6.6 Bean and nib roasting 127 6.7 Cocoa mass (cocoa liquor) 130 6.7.1 Grinding cocoa nibs 130 6.7.2 Quality of cocoa mass for the chocolate industry 131 6.7.3 Quality of cocoa mass for the production of cocoa powder and butter 132 6.8 Cocoa butter 133 6.9 Cocoa powder 135 6.9.1 Types of cocoa powder 136 6.9.2 Quality of cocoa powder 137 Summary 139 SSBeckett_FM.inddBeckett_FM.indd vviiiiii 110/3/20080/3/2008 33:49:44:49:44 PPMM Contents ix Acknowledgements 139 References 139 Further reading 140 7 Particle Size Reduction 142 G.R. Ziegler and R. Hogg 7.1 Introduction 142 7.2 Principles of fi ne grinding 143 7.2.1 Breakage mechanisms 143 7.2.2 Grinding processes 144 7.3 Grinding equipment 146 7.3.1 Crushers 146 7.3.2 Media mills 146 7.3.3 Impact mills 147 7.3.4 Fluid energy mills 148 7.3.5 Guidelines for equipment selection 148 7.4 Cocoa nib grinding 149 7.5 Chocolate refi ning 152 7.5.1 The fi ve-roll refi ner 154 7.5.2 Crumb chocolate 158 7.5.3 Sugar substitutes 158 7.5.4 The refi ner-conche 159 7.5.5 Refi ning in the presence of water 159 7.5.6 Milling cocoa powder 160 7.6 Particle size reduction and chocolate fl ow properties 160 7.7 Particle size and sensory properties 165 Conclusions 166 References 166 8 Flavour Development in Cocoa and Chocolate 169 G.