Biology of Bactrocera dorsalis (DIPTERA: TEPHRITIDAE): Implications on population dynamics and pest management By Rebaone Motswagole Reg no: 141000312 Bsc Agriculture (BUAN), MSc (BIUST) Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology Faculty of Science, Botswana International University Of Science and Technology [email protected],(+267) 76248133 A Dissertation/Thesis Submitted to the College of Science in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Award of the Degree of Master of Science in Biological Sciences (Applied Entomology) of BIUST Supervisor(s): Dr Casper Nyamukondiwa Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Botswana International University of Science and Technology [email protected], (+267) 4931523 Signature: Date: December 2017 i DECLARATION AND COPYRIGHT I, REBAONE MOTSWAGOLE, declare that this dissertation/thesis is my own original work and that it has not been presented and will not be presented to any other university for a similar or any other degree award. Signature This dissertation/thesis is copyright material protected under the Berne Convention, the Copyright Act of 1999 and other international and national enactments, in that behalf, on intellectual property. It must not be reproduced by any means, in full or in part, except for short extracts in fair dealing; for researcher private study, critical scholarly review or discourse with an acknowledgement, without the written permission of the office of the Provost, on behalf of both the author and the BIUST. ii CERTIFICATION The undersigned certifies that he/she has read and hereby recommends for acceptance by the Faculty of Science a dissertation/thesis titled: Biology of Bactrocera dorsalis (DIPTERA: TEPHRITIDAE): Implications on population dynamics and pest management in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Biological Sciences (Applied Entomology) of BIUST. Dr C. Nyamukondiwa (Supervisor) Signature: Date: 03 February 2018 iii DEDICATION I dedicate this thesis to my mother (Patricia Gobuamang Motswagole) iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would gratefully and profoundly like to thank my supervisor (Dr Casper Nyamukondiwa) who I will always remember for his guidance, mentorship, patience in seeing this project through. This would not have been possible without him. My fellow colleagues, Honest Machekano whose team support, guidance and encouragement during this whole process I sincerely valued, and not forgetting Nonofo Gotcha, Reyard Mutamiswa, Mmabaledi Buxton, Eva Moeng and Mphoeng Ofitlhile for their unfailing support. I would also like to thank Kamogelo Mmereki an undergraduate student in Biology and Biotechnology in assisting with some laboratory activities. Great thanks also goes to my family and friends for their unwavering support and encouragement during this project. I extend my gratitude and appreciation to a few organizations, the Botswana International University of Science and Technology (BIUST) and the department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, for the opportunity they granted to me, and also availing its resources for use in this project. Citrus Research International South Africa (CRI) for providing an opportunity in fruit fly training, identification, trapping and culturing. I would also like to thank the Ministry of Agriculture Botswana (MoA), for identification of farms to mount my traps, the individual farmers for their time who were really helpful in allowing us to access their farms and took part in monitoring activities. Above all I would like to thank God for the strength and making this project a success. v ABSTRACT Fruit production is one of the fastest growing sectors in Botswana. As one of the agricultural sectors, fruit production is very crucial as it contributes immensely towards income generation and employment opportunities, especially for vulnerable rural livelihoods. Despite all the benefits, one of the biggest hurdles in the fruit production industry is disease and insect pests. Chief among these insect pests is the Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae). Bactrocera dorsalis is a worldwide economic insect pest of fruit and vegetables that has spread its geographical range to many African countries including Botswana. It was first detected in Botswana in 2010 in the Chobe district. However its spread and establishment around the country following its first detection is largely unknown. Furthermore despite this pest being of economic importance and a biosecurity threat, its response to prevailing Botswana microclimates and global change remained unknown. My study therefore investigated (i) presence and (ii) seasonal population dynamics of B. dorsalis in Botswana. Furthermore I investigated the thermal tolerance of B. dorsalis by measuring its different thermal low and high temperature activity traits vis a vis Critical thermal limits (CTLs), Lethal temperature assays (LTAs), and Supercooling points (SCPs), in order to understand how temperature largely impact this specie’s activity and thus population dynamics, abundance and consequently invasive potential. My seasonal monitoring results indicate that B. dorsalis is now established in the Chobe district, (its first area of detection) as shown by its continued presence all year round and high average monthly trap catches (<0.1) as compared to other districts. Furthermore the insect pest has been detected in other districts south of Botswana, including Kgatleng, Kweneng, South-east, and Southern. This indicated that since 2010, the insect pest has spread down south of the country, with potential negative effects on fruit industries in those areas. Nevertheless, records of this insect pest in some of the areas (South-East and Kgatleng) were erratic, symbolizing that the areas did not have ‘resident breeding populations' for B. dorsalis but rather repeated introductions from ‘endemic’ or highly infested areas. Laboratory thermal activity experiments showed there was an improvement in critical thermal maxima (CTmax) at higher ramping rate across all the two developmental stages, indicating the lack of potential to shift high temperature tolerance for the two developmental stages at short timescales. The average high temperature of activity (CTmax) for adults and larvae were 46.16°C and 45.23°C respectively. However, there was an improved critical thermal minimum (CTmin) for larvae at slower ramping rate, indicating vi potential to improve low thermal tolerance at slower ramping rates, otherwise termed rapid cold hardening, the average low temperature for activity (CTmin) for adults and larvae 9.10°C and 7.3°C respectively. The results for lower- and upper lethal temperature assays (LLTs and ULTs respectively) revealed a reduction is survival at all the developmental stages as severity and duration increased, affirming the notion mortality is a function of temperature duration and severity. The ULTs and LLTs for adults, larvae and pupae ranged from 39-45, -6– 4°C; 38-41, - 4–2°C and 39-45, -8–4°C respectively at 0.5 to 4hrs treatments. Pupae were the most temperature tolerant compared to other mobile stages. The SCPs of B. dorsalis developmental stages were -16.5 (adults), -16.6 (pupae) and -12.18˚C (larvae). SCP’s were significantly affected by developmental stages with pupae and adults having relatively depressed SCPs compared to larvae. General microclimatic temperatures recorded here versus experimentally derived thermal limits to activity imply that both high and low temperatures may not limit B. dorsalis establishment in the short term, and that the species may thrive upon introduction to the thermal environments investigated. The results of this study are of major implications to the management and enforcement of quarantine regulations of B. dorsalis. Knowledge of thermal biology is highly critical in the development of phytosanitary measures as well as in the forecasting of its ability to spread and establish in novel areas. This data may help in the development of mechanistic models of B. dorsalis invasion potential. vii Table of Contents CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................................................................... 1 General Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Fruit flies and their economic significance .................................................................. 2 1.2 Bactocera dorsalis life cycle ......................................................................................... 2 1.3 Climate change and insects ......................................................................................... 4 1.4 Why are insects especially vulnerable to temperature ................................................. 5 1.4.1 Direct influence of temperature on insects .................................................................................. 5 1.4.2 Indirect influence of temperature on insects ................................................................................ 8 1.5 Relative Humidity (RH) .............................................................................................. 8 1.6 Adaptation of insects to changing climate ................................................................... 9 1.6.1 Thermal plasticity adaptation ...................................................................................................... 9 1.6.2 Acclimation/Hardening