BRITISH DIPLOMATIC PERCEPTIONS OF MODERNISATION AND CHANGE IN EARLY MEIJI JAPAN, 1868-90 FAUZIAH FATHIL Submitted for the Degree of PhD in History School of Oriental and African Studies University of London 2006 ProQuest Number: 10672846 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 10672846 Published by ProQuest LLC(2017). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 2 ABSTRACT In studying foreign images, it is generally necessary to examine the views of relevant actors, and few, if any, actors are more relevant than diplomats as they are directly related to foreign diplomacy or relations between countries. While many works have been written on popular images of Meiji Japan as perceived by Western visitors, very few have so far touched on images of Meiji Japan as viewed by British diplomats. Using mainly archive materials, this thesis aims to study British diplomatic views of political, economic and social change in Japan during the crucial early stages of that country's modernisation in the first half of the Meiji period. The thesis examines various patterns of diplomatic views as they witnessed the different changes that took place in Meiji Japan, most notably the diversity of views and images of the modernisation of the country. In addition, the thesis also addresses the question of whether British diplomatic views of Japan fit an ‘Orientalist’ interpretation of Western superiority and Oriental inferiority as popularized by Edward Said. Nevertheless, instead of discussing the issue of ‘Orientalism’ in depth, this thesis only attempts to test the validity of the Said’s theory based on the views held by British diplomats. Given the various changing aspects of Meiji Japan covered in this work, it is hoped that this thesis will help to contribute to the study of Meiji Japan and the history of images of Japan in Western minds. And, since the diplomats’ views and attitudes were based on close observation of contemporary conditions and often reflected the opinions of Japanese leaders, it is also hoped that this investigation will help to illuminate the background of British diplomacy and thus assist in providing a fuller understanding of British policy towards Meiji Japan. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGES ABSTRACT 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS 3-4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 5 INTRODUCTION 6-21 CHAPTER 1 18-54 BRITISH DIPLOMATIC VIEWS OF THE MEIJI RESTORATION, 1868-71 The Later Years of the Bakufu Rule The Japanese Civil War The Establishment of New Administration The Consolidation of the Meiji Government The Problem of Opposition and the Abolition of theHan The Continuation of Anti-Foreign Sentiment Conclusion CHAPTER 2 55-85 BRITISH DIPLOMATIC VIEWS OF THE DISMANTLING OF JAPANESE FEUDALISM, 1871-77 The Iwakura Mission Divisions and Problems Within the Government The Emergence of the People’s Rights Movement Effects of the Dismantling of Feudalism: Peasant Uprisings Samurai Uprisings Conclusion CHAPTER 3 86-115 BRITISH DIPLOMATS’ PERCEPTIONS OF JAPANESE POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT, 1878-90 The People’s Rights Movement Structural Reforms The Meiji Constitution The Government and the Approaching Diet Factionalism The Military Conclusion 4 CHAPTER 4 116-150 BRITISH DIPLOMATS’ VIEWS OF EARLY MEIJI ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Conducting Foreign Trade in Japan Problems of Japanese Trade and Industry Japan as a Competitor Japan’s Finances Conclusion CHAPTER 5 151-185 BRITISH DIPLOMATS’ VIEWS OF SOCIAL CHANGE IN EARLY MEIJI JAPAN Western Custom and Culture Education and Military Training Public Works and Communications Legal Reform Religious Freedom Development of the Japanese Press Conclusion CHAPTER 6 186-222 BRITISH DIPLOMATS’ VIEWS OF JAPAN AS AN EAST ASIAN POWER Japan’s Policy Towards China and Korea The Northern Frontier Problem The Revision of the Unequal Treaties Japan as a Military Power Conclusion CONCLUSION 223-237 APPENDIX 238-245 BIBLIOGRAPHY 246-253 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT In writing this thesis, I have incurred a number of debts. First of all, I would like to thank Dr. Richard L. Sims of the History Department, School of Oriental and African Studies for supervising this thesis and sharing with me his insights into the history of early Meiji Japan. I would also like to thank the staff of the Public Record Office, the British Library and the Cambridge University Library for their assistance. I am also grateful to my family without whose endless moral support this task would have been much more arduous. To my three sons, you are my motivation and strength to keep going on. INTRODUCTION In the history of the modem world, no country has ever surpassed Japan in its awe-inspiring leap from a feudal state to become a world Power in less than fifty years. For this, Japan was greatly indebted to those enlightened leaders who worked relentlessly, especially after the Meiji Ishin, to effect the modernisation1 of the country. Their motivation was clear, that is, as illustrated in the slogan ‘fukoku kyohei\ they sought to create a modem strong and rich Japan that would stand on an equal footing with the more advanced West and free of the so-called unequal treaties, which were damaging to the country. In pursuing this goal, the Meiji leaders strove to ensure that their modernising endeavours would be appreciated not only by their own people but also by foreigners, especially Western diplomats in Japan. Although the diplomats did not influence public images in their own countries in the same way that Western travelers and visitors who wrote about Japan did, it was their reports which directly informed their respective governments of developments in Japanese society, economic practices, political systems and foreign policy. This was particularly important as the fact that they were official representatives of their governments meant that if anything was to be done to convince the West of Japanese progress and, more specifically, show that the continuation of the much detested unequal treaties was unnecessary, the Meiji leaders would have to influence the views and images held by these diplomats. This thesis will focus on the views and perceptions of British diplomats2 in Japan since they represented the major world Power with the greatest interests in East Asia and, unlike most British citizens who visited or worked in Japan, the nature of their work gave particular insights into the modernising process in the country, and more significantly, 1 While the word seems to be used almost synonymously with ‘Westernisation’, the two words are not equivalent in meaning. One definition of ‘modernisation’ is ‘a process - a movement from traditional or quasi-traditional order to certain desired types o f technology and associated form o f social structure, value orientations and motivations and norms.’ Unlike ‘Westernisation’, ‘modernisation’ is not just a simple process of imitation or superficial acquisition of some isolated traits of the more advanced countries. Rather, it involves selection o f required elements for integration into the culture. Furthermore, unlike ‘Westernisation’, the model used is not necessarily related to Western societies for non-Westem societies too can provide the models for ‘modernisation’. See S. C. Dube, ‘Modernisation and Its Adaptive Demands on Indian Society’, in Pandey, Rajendra, Modernisation and Social Change (New Delhi: Criterion Publications), 198B, pp. 33-35. To illustrate further the meaning o f ‘modernisation’, it has also been defined as ‘a process that increases the economic and political capabilities of a society: it increases economic capabilities through industrialization, and political capabilities through bureaucratization.’ Inglehart, R., Modernization and Postmodernization (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton Univ. Press), 1997, p.5. Compared to these broader meanings o f ‘modernisation’, ‘Westernisation’ strictly refers to a process in which non-Westem societies embrace Western culture and systems. 2 By British diplomats I mean not only the British Minister or Charge d’Affaires who was in charge of the Legation at the capital Tokyo (previously known as Yedo or Edo), but also the secretaries and lesser officials who acted as assistants and interpreters to the minister, and the consuls and vice-consuls who were gave them access to the leaders of Meiji Japan. As a result, much valuable information and many interesting comments on Meiji Japan are found in the diplomats’ reports. Moreover, their official reports to Whitehall, unlike the written accounts by Western visitors, are likely to have influenced the British government’s policies towards Meiji Japan. In assessing the views held by British diplomats, this thesis will analyze to what extent the diplomats approved or disapproved of what they saw during the modernisation process of the country; what, if any, were the aspects of changing Japan that the diplomats tended to stress or ignore; whether there were underlying continuities in British diplomatic views and perceptions of Japan; to what degree there were similarities or differences in British diplomatic views; how much the views changed in accordance with changes that took place in Meiji Japan; in what measure the diplomatic views contributed to British general policy towards Japan; and whether British diplomatic reports exemplified the attitudes which according to Edward Said typified Western ideas of the Middle East and, by extension, of the East in general. In this last respect British diplomatic views and images of Japan can be seen in some measure as a test case for assessing the validity of the concept of ‘Orientalism’ as put forward by Said and others.3 In examining these views, I have separated this thesis into six main chapters, each concerned with a particular aspect of changing Japan.