The Ethical Resister’s Last Resort: News Coverage over the Allegations of a National Security Whistleblower ______________________________________________ A Thesis Presented to The Faculty of the Graduate School At the University of Missouri-Columbia __________________________________________________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts in Sociology _____________________________________________ by Ryan Amundson Dr. Clarence Lo, Thesis Supervisor May 2009 The undersigned, appointed by the dean of the Graduate School, have examined the thesis entitled THE ETHICAL RESISTER’S LAST RESORT: NEWS COVERAGE OVER THE ALLEGATIONS OF A NATIONAL SECURITY WHISTLEBLOWER presented by Ryan Amundson, a candidate for the degree of master of arts, and hereby certify that, in their opinion, it is worthy of acceptance. Professor Clarence Lo Professor Victoria Johnson Professor Charles Davis ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank all the members of my thesis committee, Dr. Clarence Lo, Dr. Victoria Johnson, and Dr. Charles Davis for all of their help. Their comments and criticisms pushed me to go beyond my own lazy thinking. They were also very understanding of the busy life of a graduate student and tolerant of a thesis running over a hundred pages. Even after receiving drafts at the last minute, all of them still managed to read carefully and offer detailed advice that helped me make my thesis into something worthwhile. I want to thank Dr. Clarence Lo especially for the many hours we spent throughout the last couple of years discussing my thesis and all the support and encouragement he provided. Putting together a thesis is not an individual job, and I am grateful to all those among the faculty and graduate students at the University of Missouri-Columbia who helped me along the way. I also want to thank Sibel Edmonds for the help she provided with this project. Not only did she submit to a long interview that made this research much more solid and interesting, but was extremely candid with me in providing her own unique insights into the news system. Her willingness to risk arrest in order to challenge news organizations to cover her core allegations provided a kind of test that could not have been more helpful to my project than anything I had imagined. I am in awe of her courage and conviction. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………….. ii List of Figures and Charts………………………………………………………………....iv Chapter 1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………..1 2. Literature Review……………………………………………………………….4 3. Methods………………………………………………………………………..18 4. Counter-Hegemonic Narrative……………………………………………………………………….35 5. Becoming a Whistleblower: News Representations of Edmonds’Allegations………………………………………………………44 6. Findings and Discussion……………………………………………………..102 7. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………...114 Appendix 1. Bibliography………………………………………………………………...120 2. References for News Articles in Data Set…………………………………. 124 iii LIST OF FIGURES AND CHARTS Figure Page 1. Dimensions of Attribution…………………………………………………………25 2. Graph 1: Frequency of News Items in Major Media Outlets from 2002 to 2009, Divided by US-Based News Organizations and Non-US-Based News Organizations…………………….46 3. Graph 2: Frequency of News Items in Major Media Outlets from 2002 to 2009, Divided by Framing Categories…………………….. 50 4. Graph 3: Frequency of News Items in Major Media Outlets from 2002 to 2009, Divided by Targets of Attribution……………………51 iv Whistleblowers can be seen as individuals fighting for what they believe is right, but their fortitude to expose fraud, waste, abuse, corruption, and injustice “cannot be understood only as an act of individual courage” (Glazer 1989, 167). A whistleblower claim goes nowhere without inside collaborators, outside authorities, legislators, public- interest groups, and courts but ultimately the most important partner in the struggle is often the news media. Obviously, without news media coverage, whistleblowers have little impact. “The willingness of journalists to listen, evaluate, and publicize allegations of wrongdoing is often a central component in facilitating whistleblowing” (167). Without the media, the public is unlikely to ever hear their voices. We depend on the news media to convey the allegations of whistleblowers or “ethical resisters,” especially when they face tough resistance from inside the organizations for which they work (or in many cases after the whistleblowing process had started, formerly worked) as well as resistance from government agencies charged with maintaining accountability. When whistleblowers meet inaction and even retaliation as they attempt to get problems addressed through inside channels and outside authorities, often their last option is to “go public” by telling their stories to journalists (Glazer 1989). It is reasonable to expect that a whistleblower’s claims would be covered up and distorted within the same organization that they criticize. Some of us may even expect resistance from regulatory agencies or Congress when their criticism is politically inconvenient. However, at the same time we might also rest assured knowing that the news media is there to provide a forum for any credible whistleblower who offers a juicy tale of corporate crime or government corruption. 1 On the surface, it appears that whistleblowers may always rely on the media when other channels run dry. Relative to the difficulties faced by political outsiders who attempt to broadcast unpopular or politically inconvenient messages in the news media, whistleblowers appear to have the ability to bypass these constraints by virtue of their unique position as insiders. The sheer number of news stories based on the allegations of whistleblowers should give some indication of their success. Daniel Ellsberg who leaked the Pentagon Papers, Sherron Watkins of Enron, Colleen Rowley of the FBI, and Katherine Gunn of the British Government Communications Headquarters are just a few examples of whistleblowers who brought stories of government and corporate deviance to the light of public scrutiny. The news stories resulting from frustrated corporate and government workers are often cited as examples of the kind of hard-hitting watchdog journalism that is supposed to put a check on power. When things get tough, the whistleblower always has the news media as their ace in the hole. Or do they? When covering whistleblowers, do media bark and growl as watchdogs guarding the public interest, or do they simply perform tricks that distract public attention away from the real sources of crime and corruption in government and corporate organizations? Clearly, whistleblowers can get attention from the news media, but the extent to which they are able to get allegations of organizational deviance faithfully represented is not so evident. Even while recognizing the large number of news stories centering on the claims of whistleblowers and the impact those stories have had on political conflict, the question still remains as to how those stories are told. Sociologist Suzan Marx (2006) argued that news media do not always serve as an effective outlet for whistleblowers’ allegations. She stressed that whistleblowers must be wary of bringing their cases to 2 journalists, stating that the whistleblower “must realize that when he/she selects the media as his/her whistleblowing channel of choice, the media could very well run away with the allegations” (13). She warned that there “is always a real threat that the whistleblower could become a puppet of the publicity forces at work during the process” (3). Although news media may give “positive” coverage to a whistleblower, Marx pointed out that “we know from experience that positive media coverage does not necessarily guarantee a positive outcome for the whistleblower” (3). What is missing from Marx’s warning is any elaboration about what kinds of whistleblower allegations are most likely to be ignored or distorted. Under what conditions news media run away with allegations is a question worth investigating. A framework for predicting how and when whistleblower claims are misrepresented in the news media remains sketchy at best. For the sake of whistleblowers themselves as they put their career and possibly their life on the line, and for the sake of a healthy political system, we ought not simply assume that news media will always publicize the claims of whistleblowers. At the same time, we should not assume that news media will ignore or distort all the claims of all whistleblowers all of the time. Considering the importance of news coverage for whistleblowers and the centrality of this coverage for substantive democratic governance, this paper investigates how news media cover the allegations of national security whistleblowers. Qualitative content analysis is used to analyze how major news media represented the allegations of Sibel Edmonds, an FBI whistleblower who was fired and eventually bound by a gag order petitioned for by the Justice Department to keep her silent about 3 what she claimed was evidence of systemic criminal activities within the US government. An analysis of this case can indicate how the corporate news system may represent the allegations of other national security whistleblowers, further refining media theory as it relates to whistleblowers specifically and helping whistleblowers prepare themselves as they approach the news media. In line with hegemony and indexing theory, findings suggest that mainstream news media are likely to avoid