THE FAMILY OF GOD: UNIVERSALISM AND DOMESTICITY IN ALICE CARY’S FICTION A Dissertation by JANE M. GALLIHER Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY August 2009 Major Subject: English THE FAMILY OF GOD: UNIVERSALISM AND DOMESTICITY IN ALICE CARY’S FICTION A Dissertation by JANE M.GALLIHER Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Approved by: Chair of Committee, Dennis Berthold Committee Members, Sally Robinson Katherine Kelly April Hatfield Head of Department, M. Jimmie Killingsworth August 2009 Major Subject: English iii ABSTRACT The Family of God: Universalism and Domesticity in Alice Cary’s Fiction. (August 2009) Jane M. Galliher, B.A., Morehead State University; M.A. Baylor University Chair of Advisory Committee: Dr. Dennis Berthold Until recently Alice Cary’s works have gone largely unnoticed by the literary community, and those critics who have examined her writings have recognized her primarily as a regionalist sketch writer. However, studying Cary’s total body of fiction, including her novels and children’s fiction as well as her sketches, and examining the influence of Christian Universalism upon her work reveals that Cary is a much more complex and nuanced writer than she has been previously understood to be. This dissertation explores the way that Cary questions stereotypes of accepted behavior specifically as they pertain to the identities of men, women, and children and offers a more flexible and inclusive religious identity rooted in Universalist ideals. In her depictions of women, Cary uses tropes from gothic stories, fairy tales, and sentimental fiction to criticize evangelical faith, Transcendentalism, and separate spheres-based stereotypes of women’s iv behavior, and she undermines these stereotypes and replaces them with a Universalist emphasis on communal service and identity. Similarly, Cary’s depictions of manhood are influenced by her desire to dissect preconceived notions of masculinity like that of the Self-Made Man and his earlier counterparts the Genteel Patriarch and the Heroic Artisan and replace these stereotypes with a Universalist model that embraces gender fluidity and sacrifice of self interest for the larger community. Cary’s treatment of children continues her critique of nineteenth century stereotypes. Cary, unlike most early nineteenth century writers, exposes the dangers of romanticized visions of middle class children, which physically isolated children from their families and endangered working class children by increasing the demand for child labor; thus Cary’s Universalism leads her to depict all children, not just the wealthy ones, as God’s children and worthy of protection. Cary also uses children metaphorically to represent minorities and tentatively question the treatment of African Americans and Native Americans. Cary stands as a prime example of an author who has been overlooked and whose obscurity has hindered the construction of literary history, particularly in regard to the antebellum roots of realism and the influence of liberal religious belief on realistic fiction. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would thank my committee chair, Dr. Dennis Berthold. Without his guidance and encouragement, I truly believe I would have remained ABD forever. Not only were his probing questions and insightful comments essential to helping me find my own voice, but he also went beyond the call of duty in encouraging me through multiple struggles and helping me coordinate arrangements with my other committee members and the Office of Graduate Studies while I was living and working in Georgia. I also thank my other committee members for their patience, encouragement, and insight. Dr. Sally Robinson was particularly a godsend in her criticism of my initial drafts. Her insight helped push my dissertation to another level and helped me to create a document I am proud of. April Hatfield’s historical knowledge of the period was very helpful to me early on in my research, and I am sure her insights will continue to help me with my future research. Special thanks also go to Dr. Kate Kelly for stepping in to my committee when I had a late vacancy on my committee. I also thank my friends and colleagues at Emmanuel College for their ongoing encouragement and help. Austina McFarland deserves vi special praise for her diligence in assisting me with my many inter- library loan requests. Finally, I want to acknowledge my husband and mother-in-law, whose love, support, and encouragement enabled me to finally finish this project. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT ..................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................. v TABLE OF CONTENTS.................................................................... vii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION............................................................. 1 Cary’s Background and Social Circles ....................... 2 Regionalist Criticism and Interpretation of Cary ........ 9 Regionalism’s Sentimental Roots ............................... 21 Cary the Universalist................................................. 25 II WOMEN AND THE CHRISTIAN COMMUNITY IN CARY’S FICTION......................................................................... 37 Feminine Empathy and Homemaking in “Mrs. Walden’s Confidant”.................................................. 44 Community in Hagar, A Story for Today .................... 51 Gothic Conventions in Hagar, A Story for Today ........ 53 Wicked Stepmothers, Virtuous Heroines and Absent Fathers ..................................................................... 60 Hagar as a Sentimental Novel ................................... 71 Conclusions .............................................................. 85 III SPIRITUAL MANHOOD IN CLOVERNOOK AND THE BISHOP’S SON ……………............................................... 87 The Evolution of Ideal American Manhood in Early America..................................................................... 89 The Rise of the Self-Made Man……………………………. 98 Emotional Distance in “My Grandfather”………………. 102 The Indictment of the Self-Made Man in “Uncle Christopher’s”…………………………………................... 110 The Fiction of Manhood in The Bishop’s Son .............. 119 viii CHAPTER Page IV THE ANGELIC CHILD AND THE OPPRESSION OF CHILDREN IN CARY’S FICTION FOR ADULTS AND CHILDREN……............................................................... 136 Evangelicals and Child Abuse ................................... 138 Child Labor on the Frontier and in Married, Not Mated........................................................................ 145 The Birth of Liberal Childhood .................................. 157 Working Class Children—Orphans All ....................... 168 Childhood as a Metaphor for Race............................. 170 V CONCLUSIONS .............................................................. 181 Cary the Realist ........................................................ 181 Cary the Feminist ..................................................... 190 Cary as a Christian Writer......................................... 193 Other Areas of Exploration in Cary............................ 198 NOTES …………………………………………………………………………… 204 WORKS CITED ............................................................................... 205 VITA ............................................................................................... 217 1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This dissertation explores the influence of Alice Cary’s (1820- 1871) Christian Universalist upbringing upon her presentation of the American family in her works of fiction, particularly her novels. While critics such as Wendy Ripley, Judith Fetterley, Marjorie Pryse, and Joanne Dobson have touched on Cary’s depictions of family life, especially those of women and children, none have examined the importance of Cary’s religion upon her writing, much less her stance on social issues. This absence of commentary is particularly surprising given Cary’s predilection for quoting hymns, scripture, and other religious writings in her fiction. Instead, critics have tended to focus on Cary as a regionalist writer constructing a feminist dialectic that speaks on behalf of the oppressed (Fetterley and Pryse 38) or as a writer using the sentimental apparatus to empower women and undermine masculine authority (Dobson, “Reclaiming” 264). As important and insightful as these criticisms have been, however, they are woefully incomplete in that they fail to address the relationship between Cary’s ____________ This dissertation follows the style of the MLA Handbook. 2 faith and her critique of family, a relationship that is at the heart of Cary’s central themes and the social commentary provided by these themes. Cary’s Background and Social Circles Cary was an important figure in the literary community of New York and in the development of women’s and regional literature. Immensely popular during her lifetime, Cary published three novels, five collections of short stories, and many poems. Her work was wide spread and familiar nationwide and appeared on a weekly basis in publications such as Legacy, one of the most respected literary magazines of the time period. Labeled by Judith Fetterley and Marjorie Pryse as the first regionalist writer, Cary