PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN Campbell et al. / NARCISSISM AND SELF-ESTEEM Narcissism, Self-Esteem, and the Positivity of Self-Views: Two Portraits of Self-Love W. Keith Campbell University of Georgia Eric A. Rudich University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill Constantine Sedikides University of Southampton The authors hypothesized that both narcissism and high self- considered to be a curse, whereas high self-esteem is esteem are associated with positive self-views but each is associ- regarded as a boon. ated with positivity in different domains of the self. Narcissists Our objective in the present research is to explore the perceive themselves as better than average on traits reflecting an bases of the positive self-views that narcissists and high- agentic orientation (e.g., intellectual skills, extraversion) but self-esteem (HSE) individuals have. In particular, we not on those reflecting a communal orientation (e.g., agreeable- wish to uncover those aspects of the self in which narcis- ness, morality). In contrast, high-self-esteem individuals per- sists and HSE individuals hold themselves in the highest ceive themselves as better than average both on agentic and com- (and lowest) regard. To presage our hypotheses: We pre- munal traits. Three studies confirmed the hypothesis. In Study dict that even though both narcissists and HSE individu- 1, narcissists rated themselves as extraverted and open to experi- als have positive self-views, these groups hold self-views ence but not as more agreeable or emotionally stable. High-self- that are distinct in theoretically meaningful ways. Spe- esteem individuals rated themselves highly on all of these traits cifically, narcissists’ self-conceptions reflect agentic (but except openness. In Study 2, narcissists (but not high-self-esteem not communal) concerns and HSE individuals’ self-con- individuals) rated themselves as better than their romantic part- ceptions reflect both agentic and communal concerns. ners. In Study 3, narcissists rated themselves as more intelligent, That is, narcissists manifest an egoistic bias, whereas HSE but not more moral, than the average person. In contrast, high- individuals display both an egoistic and a moralistic bias. self-esteem individuals viewed themselves as more moral and Narcissists perceive themselves as intelligent and outgo- more intelligent. ing but not as caring or conscientious. HSE individuals perceive themselves as both intelligent and caring. Our research paradigm is derived primarily from work Two constructs that continue to command the atten- on the better-than-average effect (Alicke, 1985; Alicke, tion of social and personality psychologists are narcis- Klotz, Breitenbecher, Yurak, & Vredenberg, 1995). We sism and self-esteem. These two constructs are partially ask participants to compare themselves to the average overlapping. First and foremost, both narcissists and other on a range of theoretically relevant traits. We rely high-self-esteem individuals have a high self-opinion: on two widely used personality instruments, the Narcis- They are said to like—and even love—themselves. Indeed, sistic Personality Inventory (NPI) (Raskin & Hall, 1979) this similarity may explain why the two variables corre- late positively, as a recent meta-analysis indicated (r = .29, Authors’ Note: We would like to thank Ahmie Polak for assistance in k = 11, n = 2,963, p < .001) (Campbell, 2001). However, conducting these studies. We would also like to thank Roy Baumeister, Dawn Dhavale, and Katie Vohs for helpful comments. Correspondence narcissism and high self-esteem also have critical differ- concerning this article should be addressed to W. Keith Campbell, De- ences. Of particular note are the interpersonal implica- partment of Psychology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602- tions of these traits. Narcissism is rather detrimental to 3013; e-mail: [email protected]. interpersonal relationships, whereas self-esteem may be PSPB, Vol. 28 No. 3, March 2002 358-368 beneficial. Perhaps this is why in our culture narcissism is © 2002 by the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc. 358 Downloaded from psp.sagepub.com at University of Southampton on March 7, 2016 Campbell et al. / NARCISSISM AND SELF-ESTEEM 359 and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE) (Rosenberg, Novacek, & Hogan, 1991a). They also manifest a some- 1965). Before presenting our methodological proce- what unstable self-esteem (Rhodewalt, Madrian, & Cheney, dures in detail, we will review briefly the relevant litera- 1998). Furthermore, narcissists score highly on the Self- ture on self-concept biases, narcissism, and self-esteem. Attributes Questionnaire (SAQ) (Rhodewalt & Morf, 1995), although this measure makes it difficult to distin- Self-Concept Biases guish egoistic and moralistic biases. This pattern of self- Researchers have identified two primary types of self- aggrandizement also can be observed in experiments deceptive biases, an egoistic bias and a moralistic bias that involve interdependent (i.e., joint outcomes) tasks (Paulhus & John, 1998). These two biases reflect either and experimenter-provided feedback on agentic traits an agentic or a communal value system—loosely speak- (e.g., creativity) (Sedikides, Campbell, Reeder, & Elliot, ing, a concern either with social dominance or social 1998). On such tasks, narcissists report that their perfor- connection. An egoistic bias is part of an agentic value mance is superior to that of their partners, regardless of system and includes inflated self-views in the domains of whether they work in dyads (Campbell et al., 2000; extraversion, openness, and intelligence. A moralistic Farwell & Wohlwend-Lloyd, 1998) or small groups (Gos- bias is part of a communal value system and includes ling, John, Craik, & Robins, 1998; John & Robins, 1994). inflated self-views in the domains of agreeableness, con- Finally, in the self-deception literature, narcissism has scientiousness, and morality. Paulhus and John (1998) been linked to an egoistic bias and, specifically, the FFM described these two patterns of value systems and biases traits of extraversion and openness (Paulhus & John, at a more general level as alpha and gamma constella- 1998). In summary, the key theme underlying these find- tions. The present research is an extension of this theo- ings is an agency orientation on that part of narcissists. retical approach for the comparison of narcissists and HSE individuals. The interpersonal dimension. The relation between nar- cissism and variables associated with interpersonal relat- Narcissism edness is negative. Narcissists express a relatively low Characterization. The personality dimension of narcis- desire for many aspects of interpersonal relatedness. sism is derived from the clinical criteria for narcissistic This is evident in a lower need for intimacy (Carroll, personality disorder, but as applied to a normal popula- 1987) and succorance (Raskin & Terry, 1988). Narcissists tion (for reviews, see Emmons, 1987; Morf & Rhodewalt, are also less empathetic in their relationships (Watson, in press; Rhodewalt & Morf, 1995). Narcissists are char- Grisham, Trotter, & Biderman, 1984). Likewise, narcis- acterized by a highly positive or inflated self-concept. sists report enhanced levels of agency (Bradlee & Emmons, Narcissists use a range of intrapersonal and interper- 1992), dominance (Bradlee & Emmons, 1992; Emmons, sonal strategies for maintaining positive self-views. For 1984; Raskin, Novacek, & Hogan, 1991b; Raskin & Terry, example, narcissists fantasize about fame or power (Raskin 1988), power (e.g., Carroll, 1987), machiavellianism & Novacek, 1991), respond to critical feedback with (McHoskey, 1995), and competitiveness (Raskin & Terry, anger and self-enhancing attributions (Campbell, Reeder, 1988). Clearly, narcissists are unlikely to desire relation- Sedikides, & Elliot, 2000; Farwell & Wohlwend-Lloyd, ships as a source of intimacy (Sedikides, Campbell, Reeder, 1998; Rhodewalt & Morf, 1996), and derogate those who Elliot, & Gregg, in press). Indeed, narcissists are low on provide threatening feedback (Kernis & Sun, 1994). In communal orientation, a pattern that reflects less self- addition, narcissists have interpersonal relationships that deception on such traits as agreeableness, conscientious- lack in commitment and caring (Campbell, 1999; Camp- ness, and morality (Paulhus & John, 1998). bell & Foster, 2001). On the Five Factor Model (FFM) of Does this mean that narcissists are loners or recluses? personality, narcissism is related most consistently to This is likely not the case. Narcissists do desire contact extraversion. However, there is also some evidence that with others; however, the purpose behind this contact is narcissism is related positively to openness/intellectance largely the enhancement of the narcissists’ self via admi- and negatively to neuroticism and agreeableness (Bradlee ration, dominance, and competitiveness (Sedikides et & Emmons, 1992; Costa & Widiger, 1994; Hendin & al., in press). Narcissists are judged as sociable (e.g., Cheek, 1997; Rhodewalt & Morf, 1995). “entertaining” and “not boring;” Paulhus, 1998, Study 2, Self-concept positivity. As noted above, narcissists’ self- Time 1) and energetic (Raskin & Terry, 1988). Also, nar- views should reflect high agency and low communion. cissists report relatively low levels of social anxiety (Wat- Past research is largely consistent with this view. Narcis- son & Biderman, 1994) and they do not differ reliably sists perceive themselves