BEYOND THE VICTIM: THE TRAUMA TIC EFFECTS OF VIOLENT CRIME -AN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE By FIONA DORIS STANSFELD Submitted in part fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF EDUCATION - WITH SPECIALISATION IN GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: PROF E WIECHERS NOVEMBER 2002 I I 0001950328 DECLARATION I declare that "Beyond the victim: the traumatic e:trects of violent crime" is my own work and that all sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. November 2002 SUMMARY Violent cnme is among the most prominent distinguishing characteristics of South African society, it has a severely traumatising effect on the populations concerned. Based on research :findings and existing literature, this study explores traumatic effects of violent crime on the most intimate associate of the victim (the partner). Accordingly, this study deals with the much-neglected topic of secondary trauma, by focusing on the following aspects of or conditions associated with violent crime and the secondary victim: cognitive, emotional and relational effects the experience of trauma, loss, vulnerability, depression and acute stress. It reveals that, depending on the severity of the incident, its consequences for the partner of the victim may range from post-traumatic stress to acute stress or secondary traumatic stress. From the similar results returned for primary and secondary victims, it is apparent that in the future, both victim and supporter should have their needs addressed with equal emphasis. TITLE OF THE DISSERTATION: Beyond the victim: the traumatic effects of violent crime - an educational-psychological perspective. KEY TERMS: Crime; armed robbery; carhijacking; secondary victim; traumatic effects of violent crime; loss; vulnerability; depression; acute stress disorder. Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to my husband Thane and to my late friends Dr Sigo and Charmaine Nielson. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Every person passing through this life will unknowingly "leave something" behind and "take something" away. Most ofthis "something" cannot be seen, heard or numbered, but nothing counts without it. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the following people for their contribution to the success ofthis study: • Professor Wiechers, with whom I have been fortunate to have had the opportunity to work. Her invaluable advice, patience, timeous and monumental support and critical insights helped to shape my thinking. Without her guidance during the course of this study, this study would not have been completed. Her thoughts on trauma have made a lasting impression on my orientation to trauma debriefing. • Helene Muller and Linda Maritz on whom I have relied, for their proficiency in statistics and for providing warm encouragement when it was needed. • Karlien de Beer for her untiring search of databases on my behalf. • Marilyn Donaldson and Craig Higson-Smith for sharing their expertise in trauma and for steering me in the right direction. • Roz Ferraro for graciously reading my first drafts, for her patience, genuine interest and assistance. • Oswald Davies, Lynn Cornfield and Ann Mayo for their keen editorial eye. • Helen Oates for nurturing my interest in the study through to copy editing the whole dissertation. • My friends: Deloros, Elita, Monica, Karen, Colin, Sandy, Vanessa, Dave and Ht;len for their forthright criticism, inimitable support and encouragement. • Debby Murphy and NiKki de Carvalho for their time and limitless energy in collecting and collating the data from the respondents. • My colleagues, Mike Kruger, Carmel Reitz and Marilyn Hill on whom I could rely to "fill in the gap" when I was otherwise pre-occupied. • My family: the Kirby-Smith's, Payne's and Stansfeld's, for their forbearance, prayers and constant support over my years of studying. • Finally to my husband Thane, you are the 'wind beneath my wings'. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 INTRODUCTORY ORIENTATION 1 1.2 ANALYSIS OF THE PROBLEM 2 1.2.1 Awareness of the problem 2 1.2.2 Exploration ofthe problem 4 1.2.2.l The magnitude ofvictimisation 4 1.2.2.2 Reasons given for violence 6 1.2.2.3 Cycle ofviolence/retaliation 8 1.3 THEORETICAL UNDERPINNINGS OF THE STUDY 8 1.4 STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM 10 1.5 CASE STUDY 11 1.6 THE AIMS OF THE INVESTIGATION 12 1.6.1 General aim 12 1.6.2 Specific aims 12 1.6.3 The broad goal ofthe study 13 1.7 METHOD OF RESEARCH 14 1.7.l Literature study 14 1. 7 .2 Research study 14 1.8 DEMARCATION OF THE RESEARCH 15 1.8.l Hypotheses 15 1.9 CLARIFICATION OF KEY CONCEPTS 16 1.10 STRUCTURE OF THE RESEARCH PROGRAMME 19 1.11 SUMMARY 20 PAGE CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE SURVEY 2.1 INTRODUCTION 22 2.2 WHAT IS MEANT BY "TRAUMA"? 23 2.2.1 Primary traumatisation ·----....-.... ,....,.,,,_..,,,.,.,,.~ ..,.,,,.,_,~.,,<Et•ff<'l,1le.·ffl-."' Q:) 2.2.2 Secondary traumatisation 24 2.3 SEVERITY AND TYPES OF TRAUMATIC EVENTS 24 2.4 THE THINKING ABOUT "TRAUMA" 25 2.4.1 A historical overview 25 2.4.2 Violence as a precursor to trauma 27 2.5 THE TRAUMA OF CRIMINAL VIOLENCE WITHIN SOUTH AFRICA 28 2.6 THE EFFECTS OF TRAUMA ON THE PRIMARY VICTIM 30 2.6.1 Post-traumatic stress disorder in the primary victim 31 2.6.2 Acute stress disorder 33 2.7 COGNITIVE EFFECTS 34 2.7.l Intrusion (Graph 4) 35 2.7.2 Avoidance (Graph4) 36 2.7.3 Dissociation (Graph 4) 36 2.8 EMOTIONAL EFFECTS 37 2.8.1 Fear and anxiety (Graph 2) 38 2.8.2 Anger/retaliation (Table 4.6) 40 2.8.3 Depression (Graph 5) 40 2.8.4 Arousal (Graph 2) 41 2.9 RELATIONAL EFFECTS 42 2.9.1 Arguments provided for loss of self-worth due to criminal victimisation 42 2.9.2 The ripple effect oftrauma 44 2.10 "BEYOND THE VICTIM": the traumatic effects of crime on the secondary victim 45 2.10.1 Secondary traumatic stress disorder 47 PAGE 2.11 THE ROLE OF THE EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGIST IN RELATION TO SYSTEMS THEORY AND THE TRAUMATISED FAMILY 48 2.12 SUMMARY 50 CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 INTRODUCTION 51 3.2 PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY 52 3.3 THE RESEARCH QUESTION 52 3.3.1 The main research question 52 3.3.2 Secondary questions 52 3.4 USING BOTH QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE METHODOLOGY TO ASSESS THE EFFECTS OF TRAUMA ON THE SECONDARY VICTIM 53 3.4.l Characteristics of quantitative methods 53 3.4.1.1 Advantages and disadvantages ofquantitative methods 54 3.4.2 Characteristics of qualitative methods 55 3.4.2.1 Advantages and disadvantages ofqualitative methods 55 3.4.3 Data collection 56 3.4.3.1 Sampling 56 3.4.3.2 The sample group 57 3.4.3.3 Defining the sample population 58 3.4.3.4 The sample composition 58 3.4.3.5 Techniques for data collection 58 3.4.3.6 Questionnaire administration 59 3.4.3.7 Measuring instruments 59 3.5 STATISTICAL ANALYSES 64 PAGE 3 .5 .1 Data capturing, derived emotional score variables and statistical analysis techniques 64 3.5.2 Data capturing 64 3.5.2.1 Frequency tables, chi-square tests and trend tests: 66 3.5.2.2 Paired-difference t-tests: 67 3.5.2.3 One-way analyses ofvariance: 68 3.5.2.4 Simple linear regression: 69 3.6 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY 69 3.6.1 Validity 69 3 .6.2 Reliability 70 3.7 ENHANCING VALIDITY BY TRIANGULATION OF METHODS 70 3.8 SUMMARY 71 CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND FINDINGS Beyond the victim 4.1 INTRODUCTION 73 4.2 THE BROAD GOAL OF THE STUDY 73 4.3 QUANTITATIVE RESULTS 74 4.3.1 Biographical classifiers of the sample group 74 4.3.1.1 Age ofrespondents (partner and victim) 75 4.3.1.2 To whom the victims turned for advice 75 4.3.1.3 When the respondents askedfor advice 77 4.3.1.4 How the primary and secondary victims coped after the incident 77 4.3.1.5 Physical symptoms experienced by respondents 79 4.4 THE FOUR STEPS TAKEN IN THE QUANTITATIVE STATISTICAL ANALYSES 81 4.4.1 Step one: frequency tables and associated chi-square and trend-test results (fable 4.6) 81 PAGE 4.4.1.1 An explanation ofhow to read the findings of Table 4.6 82 4.4.1.2 Summary ofsignificant findings from frequency tables and associated chi-square and trend test results 87 4.4.1.3 Graphs reflecting significant findings in table 4.6 87 4.4.2 Step two: Paired-difference T-test comparison ofvictim and partner Table 4.7 91 4.4.2.1 An explanation ofhow to read the findings in Table 4. 7 reflecting the summary ofpaired-difference test results 91 4.4.2.2 Summary ofsignificant findings from paired -difference t-test comparison ofvictim and partner 92 4.4.3 Step three: summary of analyses ofvariance results 93 4.4.3.1 An explanation ofhow to read the findings in table 4.8 reflecting the analyses ofvariance results 93 4.4.3.2 Summary offindings from the analyses ofvariance 97 4.4.3.3 Graphs related to findings in table 4.8 98 4.4.3.4 Trauma levels experienced by the victim and the partner 103 4.4.3.5 The effect ofgender on the victim and the partner 103 4.4.4 Step four: linear regression result 104 4.4.4.1 An explanation ofhow to read the summary ofsimple linear regressions between emotional variables as found in Table 4.9: 104 4.4.4.2 Summary of the results ofregression between test scores 105 4.4.4.3 Graph related to findings in table 4.9 106 4.5 QUALITATIVE RESULTS- OBSERVATIONS 106 4.6 SUMMARY 108 CHAPTER FIVE IN CONCLUSION Summary, recommendations and limitations 5.1 INTRODUCTION 109 5.2 OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY ON CRIME-RELATED TRAUMA 109 PAGE 5.2.1 Findings according to chapter one - introductory orientation 110 5.2.2 Findings according to chapter two -literature review 111 5.2.3 Findings according to chapter three - research methodology 112 5.2.4 Findings according to chapter four -reflection of research results 113 5.2.4.l Thefollowingfindings emerged.from this study: 114 5.2.4.2 Qualitative observations 115 5.2.4.3 The following findings are consistent with those ofother studies.