A BRIEF HISTORY OF NYC’S EARLY WATER SUPPLY & SEWER SYSTEM THE ALTERNATIVE: EARTH TOILET Henry Moule Priest of Church of England (1801-1880) Earth toilet 1860 THE WORLD WE LIVE IN… THE WORLD WE LIVE IN… THE WORLD WE LIVE IN… THE WORLD WE LIVE IN… HOLY S***! WASTE MANAGEMENT BEFORE MODERN SEWERS PRIVY Sense of privacy? Really? THE STORY OF “NIGHT SOIL” • 1800-1825: the City mandated that privies be constructed of stone, mortar, and brick and be dug at least five feet deep. • But many were built of wood Gongfermor in Britain Scavenger or Tubman in America THE STORY OF “NIGHT SOIL”: 1803-4 -£3584.16 +£6066.6 THE STORY OF “NIGHT SOIL” • Monopoly under contract • Irish, free blacks, & convicts • Northern border of the city & islands south to Manhattan THE STORY OF “NIGHT SOIL” • Not only collect human waste, but horse manure • In the 1890s, horses were leaving an estimated 2.5 million pounds of manure and 60,000 gallons of urine on the streets every day. A BRIEF HISTORY OF TOILET EVERYBODY POOPS, BUT FEW GET TO ENJOY IT A BRIEF HISTORY OF TOILET: KNOSSOS, CRETE (1700 -1300 B.C.) A BRIEF HISTORY OF TOILET: KNOSSOS, CRETE (1700 -1300 B.C.) A BRIEF HISTORY OF TOILET: ROME, ITALY (800 B.C.-100 A.D.) A BRIEF HISTORY OF TOILET: ROME, ITALY (800 B.C.-100 A.D.) A BRIEF HISTORY OF TOILET: ROME, ITALY (800 B.C.-100 A.D.) Cloaca Maxima A BRIEF HISTORY OF TOILET: ROME, ITALY (800 B.C.-100 A.D.) A BRIEF HISTORY OF TOILET: MEDIEVAL EUROPE Garderobe A BRIEF HISTORY OF TOILET: MEDIEVAL EUROPE A BRIEF HISTORY OF TOILET: MEDIEVAL EUROPE A BRIEF HISTORY OF TOILET: MEDIEVAL EUROPE A BRIEF HISTORY OF TOILET: MEDIEVAL EUROPE Close-stool A BRIEF HISTORY OF TOILET: MEDIEVAL EUROPE Chamber pot A BRIEF HISTORY OF TOILET: MEDIEVAL EUROPE A BRIEF HISTORY OF TOILET: MEDIEVAL EUROPE Four Times of the Day William Hogarth 1736 A BRIEF HISTORY OF TOILET: FLUSHING TOILET Sir John Harrington (1560-1612) A BRIEF HISTORY OF TOILET: FLUSHING TOILET A New Discourse of a Stale Subject, called the Metamorphosis of Ajax (1596) To God my prayer I meant, to thee the dirt. Pure prayer ascends to him that high doth sit, Down falls the filth, for fiends of hell more fit. A BRIEF HISTORY OF TOILET: FLUSHING TOILET A BRIEF HISTORY OF TOILET: FLUSHING TOILET Alexander Cumming First patent for flushing toilet, 1775 Scottish Clockmaker (1731-1814) A BRIEF HISTORY OF TOILET: FLUSHING TOILET Joseph Bramah, English locksmith (1748-1814) A BRIEF HISTORY OF TOILET: FLUSHING TOILET George Jennings, English plumber (1810-1882) A BRIEF HISTORY OF TOILET: FLUSHING TOILET First public toilet at 1851 Crystal Palace Exhibition A BRIEF HISTORY OF TOILET: FLUSHING TOILET First public toilet at 1851 Crystal Palace Exhibition A BRIEF HISTORY OF TOILET: FLUSHING TOILET A BRIEF HISTORY OF TOILET: FLUSHING TOILET Thomas Twyford English pottery manufacturer (1849-1921) Single-piece, ceramic wash-out toilet, 1875 A BRIEF HISTORY OF TOILET: FLUSHING TOILET A BRIEF HISTORY OF TOILET: FLUSHING TOILET A BRIEF HISTORY OF TOILET: FLUSHING TOILET TRUE PURPOSE OF FLUSHING TOILET Convenience Profit Patent The average US wage in 1910 was 22 cents per hour. The average US worker made between $200 and $400 per year. NYC HAS A WATER PROBLEM?! WATER SUPPLY BEFORE CROTON AQUEDUCT NYC HAS A WATER PROBLEM?! THE COLLECT POND Size: 48 acres = 190,000 m2 Depth: 60 feet = 18 m Bayard Mount, 34 m MANHATTAN COMPANY • 1799, the NY state charted the Manhattan Company: – Bronx River – Iron pipe • Banking ventures: surplus of bank transaction MANHATTAN COMPANY Manhattan Company Reservoir: Chamber Street, 1825. 13th St. and 4th ave, 1829. 132,600 gallons + 305,422 gallons Wooden pipe instead of iron Pumping well water to the reservoir THE COLLECT POND Water contamination beyond repair by the early 19th century 1804, Filling the Collect Landfill 1809, Canal Street sewer 1811, Bayard Mount leveled, the Collect virtually gone BEYOND MANHATTAN COMPANY… • The NY state rescinded MC’s monopoly status. • The Sharon Canal Company & the New York Water Works Company • Both failed due to high financial risks. AARON BURR New York Attorney General 1789-1791 Senator from New York 1791-1797 3rd Vice President of the U.S. 1801-1805 MANHATTAN COMPANY • Became one of the initial members of New York Clearing House Association 1853 • Merge with Chase National Bank Chase Manhattan Bank 1955 • Purchased by the Chemical Bank 1996 • Acquire J.P. Morgan J.P. Morgan Chase & Co. 2000 GROWTH OF NYC Population Population 814000 515547 312710 202589 123706 60515 96373 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 GROWTH OF NYC Wards 25 20 22 15 16 14 10 Wards 9 10 5 7 0 1791 1803 1808 1830 1840 1860 CROTON AQUEDUCT WAS SANITATION THE PRIORITY? CROTON AQUEDUCT • Public health • Loss of night soil revenue • Save cost of labor • Contamination of soil and • Attract business water • Boost real-estate value • Burden on property owners CROTON AQUEDUCT Sanitation Business Contingency CHOLERA 1832 • July 1832 • 3,515 dead out of 250,000 • 100,000 fled the city by early August CHOLERA 1832 CHOLERA 1832 CHOLERA 1832 • Mayor + the Common Council • Board of Health: quarantine and evacuation since 1796, city inspector since 1804 • A budget problem: – In 1813, $1,600 for the Board of Health, 0.3% of $524,000 – Lottery to raise money for the construction of a hospital. – $25,000 in 1832 due to cholera. – Five hospitals built – Reduced afterwards 1833 NY Senate created the Water Commission 1835 NY citizens approved the Croton Aqueduct in an open referendum 1835 David B. Douglass was appointed as chief engineer GREAT FIRE OF NEW YORK 1835 December 16, 1835 Started from 25 Beaver St. Spreading northeastward Wells and faucets were frozen. Stopped till the houses were torn down. 700 buildings in 17 blocks $20,000,000 worth of damage JOHN B. JERVIS American-trained civil engineer Apprenticing on the Erie Canal, and became the chief engineer. Assistant engineer on the Delaware and Hudson Canal, and promoted to chief engineer Mohawk and Hudson Railway director CROTON AQUEDUCT Hierarchy of management 1. Central office 2. Four divisions, each 10 miles long 3. Residential engineer, who lived and worked on site Independent contractors submitted bids for each segments HIGH BRIDGE OVER HARLEM RIVER Opposition from Westchester: fear of absorption, and fear of Irish workers Eminent domain Political turbulence of the Water Commission: Democrats Whigs Solidification of apolitical engineer: Jervis’s position remained untouched. CROTON AQUEDUCT Water Commission (NY) Croton Aqueduct Committee (NYC) CROTON AQUEDUCT January 8, 1841, flood killing three people, destroying dams. bridges, mills, and homes. April 1841, the state limited the authority of the Water Commission below the Murray Hill Reservoir. CROTON WATER CELEBRATION October 14, 1842 SEWER SYSTEM OF NYC FROM WARD TO TAMMANY HALL THE EARLY SEWERS • Before 1830 • Open sewer: Canal Street Sewer • After 1830 • Closed underground conduit THE EARLY SEWERS: PIECEMEAL Petition from local Decision from the Development in property owner Common Council wealthy districts NY Croton NYC Common Aqueduct Council Department CAD Maintaining, CC constructing, Planning & managing Chief engineer is Alderman included CAD CC Some appointed Run by apolitical by the mayor, Croton with Council’s Aqueduct Board endorsement Board members hold longer terms than politician CAD CC Generate Technical public support response Construction Advertising by individual and choosing contractors the bid SEWERS AFTER CROTON AQUEDUCT • 200 contractors in the 1850s and 1860s • Not with extensive experience • Wealth sharing among a greater share of constituents • The contractors were obliged to follow the specifications detailed in the contract. • BRICKS + MORTAR • Maintain a neat construction site, but often failed. • Inspectors, but easy to bribe • Contractor’s Quality negligence • Lack of Conflict support from CAD • Thicker waste Ineffectiveness • Larger volume of waste RISE OF ENGINEER • In the early 1840s, city inspector John Griscom attempted to fill the positions of health wardens and street inspectors with medical personnel under his charge. • The attempt was opposed by the Common Council as Alderman of each ward tended to award the appointments to their loyal supporters. RISE OF ENGINEER • Consciousness of a profession: • 1800-1850, several failed attempts • 1852 creation of American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), following a British model – 1855 Ellis Chesbrough (Boston Chicago) – 1857 Brooklyn Board of Sewer Commissioners: Julius Adams and J.P. Kirkwood MAYOR FERNANDO WOOD 1855-1858 Popular support from immigrants and working class with promises to clean up the city. New city charter 1857 (by NY!): Central Park Commission Harbor Commission Metropolitan Police Department 1857 Conflicts of between two police forces: municipal vs. metropolitan MAYOR FERNANDO WOOD 1860-1862 Civil War Remove Alfred W. Craven, the chief engineer of Croton Aqueduct Department, a founding member and later the president of ASCE Incompetence, disrespect, embezzlement. ALFRED W. CRAVEN 1829 Columbia College (today’s Columbia University) law school 1835 Started an apprenticeship on the Mad River Railroad of Ohio 1843-1849 Mohawk and Hudson Railroad 1849 Chief engineer of Croton Aqueduct Department ALFRED W. CRAVEN Craven’s fight-back: the skill of engineer and the support from the mass Dispute of “municipal despotism” Chief engineer of Croton Aqueduct Department till 1868 SANITARY REFORM • Citizens’ Association was created for the goal of “public usefulness.” 1863 • CA asked 24 physicians, Griscom included, to comment on the state of public health. 1864 • In January, CA concluded their report and disseminated it widely. 1865 • In April, the state outlawed building of sewers unless authorized by CAD. • The New York City Metropolitan Board of Health was created. 1866 • The Board was proven effective in the fight of cholera the same year it was created.