Embodied Histories, Danced Religions, Performed Politics: Kongo Cultural Performance and the Production of History and Authority by Yolanda Denise Covington A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Anthropology) in The University of Michigan 2008 Doctoral Committee: Associate Professor Elisha P. Renne, Chair Associate Professor Kelly M. Askew Associate Professor Mbala D. Nkanga Assistant Professor Julius S. Scott III © Yolanda Denise Covington 2008 To my grandmother NeNe ii Acknowledgements When I look back on my experiences, it seems as if I was guided by some unseen hand. From my acceptance into the A Better Chance Program for high school, to my career switch from medicine to anthropology/Africana Studies at Brown University, to my trips to Panama, and finally to Congo while at the University of Michigan, I often felt as if my path was being determined by someone else and I was just traveling along it. Along the way, however, I met many wonderful people who have played crucial roles in my journey, and I have to thank them for getting me here. This dissertation is really a collaborative project, for I could not have completed it without the guidance and assistance of so many people. The first person I have to thank is my grandmother, who has inspired and encouraged from my days at C.E.S. 110X in the Bronx. She has always been supportive and continues to push me to reach my highest potential. I could not have reached this point without a great support system and wonderful dissertation committee. First and foremost, I have to thank Elisha Renne, my dissertation committee chair and overall advisor. Elisha is the hardest working academic that I know, and the most amazing advisor any graduate student could ever wish to have, in all honesty. She gives back feedback on my writing within hours, and sometimes within minutes when we go over my writing together in her office. She also offers wonderful career guidance, sending calls for papers and publications my way all the time (my first iii publication was the result of one of those e-mails that she sent to me). She is incredibly supportive, and I can always count on her to be straight with me with her suggestions and constructive criticism of my research, writing, and revisions. I can truly say that I was blessed in having an advisor that took great interest in nurturing my growth and career, and I hope that I will continue to make her proud in the future. Next is Tata Mbala Nkanga. Words cannot capture the debt that I owe to him for all that he has done. Tata Mbala encouraged me to go to the Congo, even when many people warned me against it. He provided me with contacts that took great care of me during my time there, and it was his letter and faith in my ability to carry out my project that ultimately convinced the Fulbright committee to award me a fellowship. He took the time to translate certain songs for me and even sat down to explain many things about Kongo culture and history and political animation, conversations that I benefited from tremendously. He is a wonderful mentor, and his wife Honorine has also been an inspiration to me as well. Mfiaukidi, Tata Mbala. Kelly Askew has been a great support and mentor over the years. It was her work that called me to the University of Michigan, and I continue to be amazed at her intelligence and drive. She encouraged me in the moments when I felt like giving up, always looked out for me where funding was concerned, and provided a model of work/life balance that I desire to emulate. Thank you so much, Kelly, for all that you have done for me. I always say that it was Julius Scott III (my fellow Brown alumnus) who sat me down and forced me to make a choice between Panama and Congo. Were it not for him, I might still be years away from finishing. He took me under his wing, and helped me to iv become not only a better teacher, but also a better scholar. Thank you for coming through for me at the moment when I needed it the most; my heart overflows with gratitude. Maxwell Owusu has also provided great support and conversations in the development of my research project. He especially encouraged me to be aware of how people identify me and relate to me in the field, and it is to him that I owe a great deal of my discussions about my own experiences that are found throughout the dissertation. At the University of Michigan, I must also thank the Department of Anthropology for its support over the years, especially the graduate program coordinator, Laurie Marx, who for good reason I now call, the “Miracle Worker.” Laurie, thank you so, so much. From finding money for last minute conference travel, to helping to navigate fellowship and teaching applications, to handling defenses; without you, we all would be lost. My other home on campus is the Center for Afroamerican and African Studies; I must thank the Center for all of the research funding, teaching and workshop opportunities, and just overwhelming support that they have provided over the years. Kevin Gaines, Donald Sims, Devon Adjei, Beth James, Faye Portis, Chuck Phillips, Chaquita Willis---thank you all so much, for not only supporting me academically but also as a student with a personal life as well. I must also extend my thanks to the Institute for the Humanities. It was because of their fellowship that I was able to complete the writing of my dissertation, and the office space that they extended to me even after the fellowship ended made all the difference in my ability to write. Thank you—Danny Herwitz, Terry Jansen, Eliza Woodford, Doretha Coval; and my dear fellows—Jennifer Palmer, Min Li, Marcia v Inhorn, Haiping Yan, and all of the other fellows, thank you for all of your feedback and support. There are so many people that impacted and facilitated my research in the Congo that I can only list them here: Tata Fu-Kiau Bunseki, who provided additional contacts and taught me KiKongo in the SCALI program; Professor Kimpianga Mahaniah—were it not for you, I would have never gone to Luozi. You opened your home and library to me, let me accompany you on trips, introduced me to many people, and were a great resource and support to me both in Luozi and Kinshasa. I cannot thank you enough, and continue to be inspired by your own work in Kongo history and culture. Papa Leon, I learned a lot from you in the time we spent together; thank you. Ne Nkamu Luyindula—thank you for the KiKongo, drumming, and dance lessons and the late night debates on Kongo culture, history, and gender politics; you are an amazing artist and a true griot. We must work together in the future. In Luozi: Pere Blaise and the Catholic mission; the Luyobisa family (Pa Luyobisa, Ma Suzanne, Marcelline and the other children); the DMNA church; Charles Mayangi Masamba; the members of BDK in Luozi; the CEC churches and mission; Ma Jackie, who was like a mother to me there in Luozi—I will never forget; Reagan, my little brother; Eric and Yannic; Tata Zam, thank you for everything. Ma Muniangu; Ton-Ton Niki Niki; Ma Mambweni; Ma Sylvie; Ma Virginie; Jose Dianzungu and his wife; everyone who allowed me to interview them and pick their brains for their knowledge—I cannot thank you all enough. I just hope my work does justice to what I learned from you all. In Kinshasa: Papa Jean Kambayi Bwatshia and Mama Angelique, who opened their home to me for a number of months; thank you for being my parents away from vi home. Mama Annie Meta—what can I say, Mama Annie, you were crucial in helping me to settle in Kinshasa, finding me housing, taking me to meet with contacts or even to get my hair done; going food shopping and providing daily rides home—you were like my big sister, and I cannot thank you enough. Thank you to the cultural/public affairs section of the American Embassy in Kinshasa; I’d also like to thank Tata Nzuzi, who introduced me to his family and remains in contact. Tata Ndundu, you were like an unofficial committee member there in Congo; you helped to shape my project and challenged me to think deeply about it; you kept me on track, meeting with me over and over again to discuss my work, and arranging meetings and interviews with other people; I cannot thank you enough. Abbe Ngimbi, thank you so much for the conversations and for arranging the trip to Mayidi. Frederick Ngandu, thank you. I must thank the staff at the National Archives in Kinshasa, which patiently searched for documents and files for me even when there was no electricity; also the librarian at CEPAS, and Pere Body at Scholasticat. I had many friends in Kinshasa; within the diasporic community—Jill and Anthony, Aleathea, Patsy and Marco, S.T., Mike, Ray (all of whom provided food and/or housing to this struggling grad student at one time or another) and any others I forgot here; thank you. In Gombe and other parts of Kinshasa—Christian, who introduced me to a large group of friends; Bolene, Dido, and everyone else—thank you for the great times and rowsing and challenging conversations over Skol and red soda.