Helgol Mar Res (2005) 59: 9–21 DOI 10.1007/s10152-004-0202-6 ORIGINAL ARTICLE Karsten Reise Coast of change: habitat loss and transformations in the Wadden Sea Received: 31 July 2004 / Revised: 10 October 2004 / Accepted: 20 October 2004 / Published online: 18 January 2005 Ó Springer-Verlag and AWI 2005 Abstract In the southern North Sea, coastal people Introduction commenced with habitat conversions 1,000 years ago. Partly interrupted in late medieval times by large-scale Sea level rise and sediment supply have been the main inundations of marshland, progressive embankments drivers of change in coastal morphology of the south- transformed the landward half of the amphibic transi- ern North Sea until diking commenced about tion zone between a limno-terrestric and a brackish- 1,000 years ago (Behre 2002; Flemming and Davis marine ecosystem into arable land and freshwater lakes. 1994; Pethick 2001; Rippon 2000; Wolff 1992a). Here, Sea walls rigidly separated the land from the sea. Dy- an attempt is made to reconstruct natural states before namic transitional habitats have vanished. Areal loss has diking became the key process affecting habitat diver- diminished the capacity of the Wadden Sea to dissipate sity in the Wadden Sea region. Similar developments wave and tidal energy. A coastal ecosystem once rich in took place at the east coast of Britain (Burbridge and marsh plants, seagrass and diatoms on mud flats became Pethick 2003), in China (Wang et al. 2000) and else- transformed into one with less autochthonous photo- where at sedimentary coasts. However, the tradition of troph production, dominated by sandy tidal flats, and gaining and separating land from the Wadden Sea has dependent primarily on allochthonous plankton supply. come to an end (Wolff 1992b). During the 1980s, nat- The large estuaries have been dredged to serve as ship- ural wetlands came to be valued more highly than a ping canals, and have lost most of their former retention potential gain from turning them into arable land. and filter capacity. Riverine loads are now flushed right Nevertheless, further embankments and storm surge into the North Sea. Symptoms of a syndromatic coastal barriers were employed for improving water manage- habitat degradation are diagnosed, leading to a decline ment in the hinterland and for the sake of coastal de- in natural habitat diversity. The conventional on-line fence. The present coastal defence policy is to hold the coastal protection may not achieve a sustainable coastal line. The Netherlands, Germany and Denmark have habitat configuration. At sedimentary coasts immobi- adopted a common management plan for integrating lised by dikes and petrified shores, a more flexible re- nature conservation and human use in the Wadden Sea sponse to sea level rise is recommended. (Stade Declaration 1998). Keywords Coastal dynamics Æ Estuary Æ Habitat loss Æ What is the outcome of coastal transformations on Sea level rise Æ Tidal flats habitat diversity and natural habitat dynamics? The large areal extent of embankments also poses the ques- tion whether the tidal area of the Wadden Sea, if left to itself, will remain as it is or is there a legacy of past interventions by which habitats will continue to change? This is to be expected if present coastal morphology is not in line with hydrodynamic conditions. Further, sea Communicated by H.K. Lotze level is assumed to continue to rise, presumably with some acceleration (IPCC 2001). Will this cause tidal flats K. Reise to fade away and muddy sediments to become more Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, sandy? Habitats also change when habitat generating Wadden Sea Station Sylt, 25992, List, Germany E-mail: [email protected] species (ecosystem engineers, sensu Jones et al. 1994), Tel.: +49-4651-956110 such as seagrasses, oysters and mussels, are affected Fax: +49-4651-956200 (Lotze 2005; Wolff 2005). 10 Abrahamse (1976), Bantelmann (1966), Behre (2001, 2002), van Eerden et al. (1997) and Knottnerus (2001) provide reconstructions of historical Wadden Sea land- scapes. First surveys on habitats in the tidal area were conducted in the 1920s and 1930s (i.e., Hagmeier and Ka¨ ndler 1927; Nienburg 1927; Wohlenberg 1937; Linke 1939; Plath 1943). Comprehensive habitat maps for the 1970s have been provided by Dijkema (1983, 1991; Di- jkema et al. 1989) and a status list of biotopes and biotope complexes has been compiled by Ssymank and Dankers (1996). Habitats are here defined as conspicu- Fig. 2 Areal share of land- and sea-scape components in the ous, recurrent areal components with a characteristic Wadden Sea region, including the Zuiderzee area cluster of hydrographic, morphological, sedimentary 2 2 and biotic features. 100 km on the islands, 4,000 km of intertidal sand and 2 I will focus on the tidal area and shoreline habitats, mud flats, and also 4,000 km of a sandy subtidal zone consider effects of past sea level change, and speculate dissected by deep tidal channels (gulleys) and inlets 2 on the functioning of the primordial Wadden Sea coastal (Fig. 2). About 6,000 km of the adjacent North Sea ecosystem. In a second part, I describe transformations down to a depth of À15 m may be added to include the towards modern coastal architecture and reflect on a immediate sharing system of sediment and water. syndromatic development that has arisen. I conclude A thousand years ago, before people started to with a few suggestions for future habitat management in transform this coastal landscape, salt marshes, brackish the Wadden Sea. reed marshes, lagoons, bogs and lakes comprised approximately 14,650 km2. These are now embanked, including some tidal areas. In the northern Wadden Sea, Areal overview the tidal area used to be smaller than it is now, but may have extended further seaward to an unknown extent. In former times, the Wadden Sea region continued into Today, the tidal area of the entire Wadden Sea is pre- the Rhine delta and beyond, but at present it is under- sumably close to its size before 1000 AD. stood as the 500-km long coastal zone between the In medieval times, areal proportions were changed Marsdiep in the west and Gra˚ dyb in the north (Fig.1; intermittently by storm surges inundating embanked Anonymous 1991; De Jong et al. 1993, 1999; Wolff land which had been artificially subsided by cultivation 1983). It is still one of the largest coherent tidal flat areas and peat mining (Table 1). These inundations occurred in the world. Nowadays, a mainland coastal plain of at different times between 1000 and 1634 AD, earliest in about 24,000 km2 comprises 15,000 km2 of embanked the southwest and latest in the north of the Wadden Sea. marshes and embayments (including the former Zuid- Subsequent re-embankments followed the same pattern. 2 The largest embayment which came into existence was erzee), 1,000 km of islands and high sandy shoals, 2 200 km2 of salt marshes along the mainland coast and the brackish Zuiderzee (3,600 km ). When it was dam- med in 1932, almost one-third of the entire tidal area of the Wadden Sea had been cut off, and was subsequently converted into arable land and a freshwater lake. Rise and fall of sea level in a pristine Wadden Sea Since the end of last glaciation in 16,000 BP, relative sea level has risen by 120 m in the North Sea region (Behre 2002; Rippon 2000; Streif 1989). During a fast rise until Table 1 Estimated areal sizes of medieval inundations of mostly cultivated marsh and peatland (IMP) between 1000 and 1634 AD, of their partial re-embankment, of the still inundated parts now belonging to the tidal area, and that part of the tidal area which became embanked, but never had been medieval marshland. Given as percentages of all former marshes and bogs (14,650 km2) Type of area km2 % Inundated marsh and peatland (IMP) 6,200 42 Re-embanked IMP 5,180 35 Fig. 1 The Wadden Sea between the 15-m depth contour and the Remaining IMP 1,020 7 embanked marshland, with the former Zuiderzee area and part of Embanked primordial tidal area 1,370 – the Elbe estuary cut off 11 7000 BP, tundra and boreal forest in the southern North Below neap high tide level, salt and reed marshes gave Sea became flooded. When the shoreline approached the way to extensive mud flats. The waters above may have region of the present Wadden Sea, sea level was still been relatively transparent most of the time, because of: >10 m lower than today and the rise decelerated. Short (1) the riverine filters, (2) a high energy dissipation and phases of stasis or fall occurred intermittently. A switch deposition capacity of the wide flood plain, and (3) vast from transgression to 200 years of regression occurred oyster beds between Britain and the Wadden Sea (Olsen around the beginning of the Christian calendar. This 1883). Their filtering capacity may have caused clearer interval was followed by a rise of roughly 2 m until to- waters than nowadays, when the waters are without day (Rippon 2000). oysters but with anthropogenic eutrophication. There- When sea level rise slowed down, barrier spits with fore, seagrass beds may have been very extensive (Fig. 3) sand dunes developed. These were eventually breached and would have served as an additional sink for fine and cut into barrier islands as sea level continued to rise particles. A modern analogue may be the pristine tidal and tidal range increased. In the southern Wadden Sea, area of the Banc d‘ Arguin in Mauretania mostly cov- this happened between 7500 and 6000 BP and consti- ered by seagrasses (Wolff et al.