A Pragmatic Approach to Ethical Inquiry on Transhuman Athletes and Gene Doping in Sport Rand Meshki, B.Sc. Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Applied Health Sciences (Health and Physical Education) Supervisor: Danny Rosenberg, PhD Faculty of Applied Health Sciences Brock University St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada Rand Meshki © July, 2011 Dedication You do not get to choose your parents but I may as well have. I would like to dedicate my thesis to my loving parents – my father Yousef who is the epitome of loyalty, honour and generosity and my nurturing mother Matilda whose strength, intelligence and selflessness is unfaltering. Thanks mom and dad for cultivating in me a seed of a love for learning. In addition, this thesis is dedicated to my sister Dina, brother Malek and sister-in-law Jenelle each of whom is always an amazing source of encouragement, inspiration, support and unconditional love. ii Abstract Gene doping is the most recent addition to the list of banned practices formulated by the World Anti-doping Agency. It is a subset of doping that utilizes the technology involved in gene therapy. The latter is still in the experimental phase but has the potential to be used as a type of medical treatment involving alterations of a patient‘s genes. I apply a pragmatic form of ethical inquiry to evaluate the application of this medical innovation in the context of sport for performance-enhancement purposes and how it will affect sport, the individual, society and humanity at large. I analyze the probable ethical implications that will emerge from such procedures in terms of values that lie at the heart of the major arguments offered by scholars on both affirmative and opposing sides of the debate on gene doping, namely fairness, autonomy and the conception of what it means to be human. iii Acknowledgments First, I would like to express my utmost gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Danny Rosenberg. Although Danny possesses an incredible amount of insight and wisdom, he truly is one of the most genuine, modest and caring people I have met. In my opinion, these characteristics make him nothing short of an ideal mentor. I thank him for consistently challenging and motivating me along the way and for the countless meaningful conversations we have shared. I know Danny‘s character and professionalism will leave a lasting influence on me and I am privileged to have worked under his mentorship. I am also very grateful to my committee members, Dr. Ian Ritchie and Dr. Jarold Cosby, in addition to my external adviser, Dr. Angela Schneider, for agreeing to dedicate their time to serve on my committee and for contributing their analytical rigour and constructive criticism to this thesis. Finally, I am very thankful for having had the opportunity to pursue graduate studies at Brock University learning from wonderful professors including Dr. Lisa Kikulis. Due to this experience, my professional and personal character has grown tremendously. This research was supported by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada through the Joseph-Armand Bombardier Canada Graduate Scholarship. iv Table of Contents Dedication…………………………………………………………………………………ii Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………...iii Acknowledgments…………………………………………………………………….….iv Table of Contents………………………………………………………………….………v Chapter 1………………………………………………………………………….……...1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………….……….1 Main Questions …………………………………………………………………………...5 Rationale for the Study……………………………………………………………………5 Justification of General Topic…………………………………………………….5 Justification of Chosen Theoretical Approach……………………………………8 Justification of Chosen Values…………………………………………………...10 Theoretical Foundation……………...…………………………………...………………18 Limitations & Delimitations………………………………………………………….….20 Chapter Development……………………………………………………………………24 Reflexivity……………………………………………………………………………….28 Trustworthiness…………………………………………………………………………..31 Chapter 2………………………………………………………………………………..34 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………34 Pragmatism………………………………………………………………………………34 A Historical and Descriptive Account…………………………………………...34 Pierce’s Pragmatism – An Account of Meaning…………………………………38 Pragmatic Inquiry………………………………………………………………..40 Pragmatic Axiology & Ethics……………………………………………………………45 John Dewey and Pragmatic Axiology……………………………………………45 Limitations of Axiological Pragmatism…………………………………….……47 Pragmatic Ethics..………………………………………………………………..48 Criticisms of Pragmatic Methodology…………………………………………………...49 Problems with the Pragmatic Maxim……………………………………………50 Giving up on Epistemological Pragmatism – The Shift to Freestanding Pragmatism…………………………………………………..51 Freestanding Pragmatism………………………………………………………………...55 Overview of a Freestanding Approach………………………………………….55 Addressing Concerns with Freestanding Pragmatism…………………………..58 Chapter 3………………………………………………………………………………..68 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………...68 Disclaimer……………………………………………………………………………….69 Fairness………………………………………………………………………………….70 An Overview of Rawls’s Notion of Fairness…………………………………….70 Defending Rawls’s Notion of Fairnes by Critiquing an Alternative Conception………………………………………79 Sorting out the Principles……………………………………………………….82 v Autonomy………………………………………………………………………………..89 The Etymology of Autonomy……………………………………………………..89 A General Account of Autonomy…………………………………………………89 Autonomy and Freedom According to Immanuel Kant………………………….90 Can Kant’s Moral Autonomy be Sustained in Pragmatic Ethics?……………….93 Autonomy in Contemporary Western Healthcare………………………………..98 Autonomy in Relation to Multiculturalism……………………………………..100 Autonomy: What Should Motivate our Actions?………………………………..104 A Brief Note on Paternalism……………………………………………………105 Criticism of the Focus on Procedural Autonomy………………………………110 Criticism of the Individualistic Approach to Autonomy………………………..111 Relational Autonomy……………………………………………………………113 My Understanding of Autonomy………………………………………………..117 Human Value…………………………………………………………………………...118 Cognition……………………………………………………………………….119 Biological Composition………………………………………………………...121 Social Behaviours………………………………………………………………121 Spirituality………………………………………………………………………122 Utility of the Four Features of Humanness…………………………………….123 Human Nature as a Normative Guide………………………………………….124 Promethean Viewpoint of Human Nature………………………………………127 A Middle Ground Between Two Extreme Viewpoints of Human Nature……….130 Chapter 4………………………………………………………………………………132 Fairness…………………………………………………………………………………132 Would Gene Doping Enhance Fairness in Sport?……………………………...132 Deficiency of Athlete Representation in Sport Policy Decision-Making……….139 Would Gene Doping Reduce Fairness in Sport?……………………………….141 Essential Skills of the Sport to Determine Acceptability of Innovations……….144 Public Opinion to Determine Acceptability of Innovations…………………….147 Is the Structural Purpose of Sport Unfair?……………………………………..151 Is Sport’s Alleged Unfair Structural Goal Unique?……………………………156 What Would An Athlete Determine from Behind the Veil of Ignorance?………158 Autonomy………………………………………………………………………………160 Harm, Autonomy & Hard Paternalism…………………………………………160 Adults & Relational Autonomy…………………………………………………163 A More Comprehensive Evaluation of Potential Harm………………………...168 Children & the Right to an Open Future……………………………………….171 Does it Matter Which Traits are Enhanced?…………………………………...178 The Case Against Perfection……………………………………………………182 Human Value…………………………………………………………………………...182 Does Gene Doping Bolster or Reduce Human Agency?……………………….185 What is Wrong with Hyper-control? The Abolishment of Life’s Giftedness……189 What is Wrong with the Abolishment of Recognizing Life as a Gift?…………..191 The Connection Between Human Nature & Fairness…………………………..194 A Critique of Sandel’s Case Against Perfection………………………………..197 vi Enhanced & Un-enhanced Human Beings Living Together……………………204 Chapter 5………………………………………………………………………………209 Does Widespread Use of Gene Doping Promote the Desirable Community?…………209 Fairness…………………………………………………………………………210 Autonomy……………………………………………………………………….214 Human Value…………………………………………………………………...217 Assessment of the Utility of Each Value for Our Purposes……………………………220 Limitations of my Conclusions & Future Areas of Research…………………………..227 What if a General-Purpose Trait Clouds an Essential Element of the Sport?…234 Limits on Asserting the Ethical Permissibility of a Gene Doping Ban…………236 Connections between the Tenets of Freestanding Pragmatism & My Own Analysis………………………………..240 Consequences of Gene Doping and the Fallibility of Our Predictions………...242 Unexplored Territory Outside of Fairness, Autonomy & Human Nature….......244 The Inevitability of Gene Doping: Are Sport Governing Bodies Fighting An Uphill Battle?……………………..…………………..245 Conclusion………………………………………………………….…………………..247 References………………………………………………………….………………….250 vii Chapter One Introduction & Overview Introduction Modern pharmaceutical and technological advancements have improved the ability to alter the biological capabilities of individuals. Particularly, these traits include those that influence the athletic capabilities of humans. Physical capacities that can be enhanced include speed, strength, fatigue resistance, rate of injury recovery and pain tolerance associated with heavy training. In producing an elite athlete, one attempts to optimize the individual’s innate biological factors by manipulating aspects of their environment. The methods that are used include diet, equipment and high quality training programs. It is clear