Digital Apollo: Human and Machine in Spaceflight David A. Mindell The MIT Press Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England ( 2008 Massachusetts Institute of Technology All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying, recording, or information storage and retrieval) without permission in writing from the publisher. For information about special quantity discounts, please email [email protected] This book was set in Stone Serif and Stone Sans on 3B2 by Asco Typesetters, Hong Kong. Printed and bound in the United States of America. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Mindell, David A. Digital Apollo : human and machine in spaceflight / David A. Mindell. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-262-13497-2 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Human-machine systems. 2. Project Apollo (U.S.)—History. 3. Astronautics—United States—History. 4. Manned spaceflight—History. I. Title. TA167.M59 2008 629.47 04—dc22 2007032255 10987654321 Index Accelerometers, 1 control and, 19–22 Apollo program and, 97, 109–110, 119, 132, F-80 Shooting Star, 45 174, 194, 201 F-104 Starfighter, 45 AC Spark Plug, 110, 127, 134, 137 SR-71, 45 Adams, Mike, 59–61 stability and, 19–22 Adaptive control systems, 57–61, 77 U-2, 45 AGC (Apollo guidance computer), 259 X-1, 44, 46 Apollo 4 and, 174–175 X-15, 6 (see also X-15) Apollo 5 and, 175 Air-pressure gauges, 24 Apollo 7 and, 177 Aldrin, Edwin ‘‘Buzz,’’ 1–4, 8, 86 astronaut input and, 159 Eagle and, 217–232 Block II and, 137–138 Medal of Freedom and, 232 digital autopilot and, 139–142 Alonso, Ray, 100, 102, 126, 157–158, 166 display and keyboard (DSKY) unit and, 165– Altimeters, 24–25, 110, 201, 222 169 American Institute of Aeronautics and Eagle and, 220 Astronautics (AIAA), 263 landings and, 191, 193, 208 Ames Research Center, 28, 31, 43, 103 lunar module (LM) and, 200, 220 Angle of attack, 47–48, 56–59 reliability issues and, 123–143 Antares, 244 weight of, 143 Apollo program, 1, 49, 62–63, 66, 264, 269 AGE models, 106 airmen school and, 27–28, 39 Agena, 85 American imagery and, 12 Aiken, Howard, 100 announcement of, 92 Aiming at Targets (Seamans), 97 astronaut integration and, 105 Airbus, 267 automation and, 92, 94, 105–109, 119–121, Airliners, 267 139–142, 177–180, 243, 258 Airmen school, 21–23 Battin and, 100–103 Apollo and, 160–161 beginnings of, 91–93 X-15 and, 46–49, 63, 66, 68 black Friday and, 171 Airplanes changing nature of, 112–114 airmen vs. chauffeurs and, 21–23, 46–49, 63 Chilton and, 91–93, 96, 104 336 Index Apollo program (cont.) Eagle landing and, 1–4, 7–8, 217–232 Christmas Eve mission and, 178 human factors and, 217–227 computers and, 104–106, 123–143 (see also lack of accuracy and, 235 Computers) Medal of Freedom and, 232 congressional support of, 96 pilots’ reasons for manual control and, 259 cost of, 5, 106, 109, 143, 251 pitch over and, 220–221 deaths and, 173 powered descent and, 217–220 decision points and, 103 scientist resignations and, 257 early missions and, 174–177 simulators and, 217, 220 firmware and, 154–157 Apollo 12, 261 G&N System Panel and, 148–149, 160 accuracy and, 235–237 Gemini and, 86 Conrad and, 236–243 guidance systems and, 102–114, 174–180, DELTAH and, 237 243 goal of, 235–236 gyro culture and, 96–97 improvements on, 236 human factors and, 14–15, 160–166 (see also landing point designator (LPD) and, 237–238 Human factors) lunar module (LM) of, 236–237 Instrumentation Laboratory and, 96, 105–121 Noun 69 and, 236–237, 242–243 (see also Instrumentation Laboratory) pilots’ reasons for manual control and, 259 J-missions and, 249–250 pitch over and, 238 Kennedy and, 5–7, 12, 61, 91, 95, 104–105, powered descent initiation (PDI) and, 237 107, 111, 134, 251, 270 procedural changes in, 236–237 landings and, 181–215 reaction control system (RCS) and, 237–238 management conflicts and, 133–137 simulators and, 238 optics issues and, 114–119 velocity indicator and, 241–242 Polaris and, 104–105, 110 Apollo 13, 9, 186, 243 project management and, 169–174 Apollo 13 (film), 9 project-oriented histories of, 9–10 Apollo 14, 233 safety requirements and, 134–135 backup systems and, 248–249 simulators and, 2–3, 51, 54 (see also hardware failure and, 243–248 Simulators) pilot skills and, 248–249 social effects of, 8–10 pilots’ reasons for manual control and, 260 software and, 145–180 (see also Software) pitch over and, 251 sole-source contract and, 107–108 powered descent initiative (PDI) and, 245– Apollo 1, 173 247 Apollo 4, 174–175 Apollo 15, 250 Apollo 5, 175–176, 233 pilots’ reasons for manual control and, 260 Apollo 6, 176 pitch over and, 251–255 Apollo 7, 176–177 Apollo 16, 250–251, 255, 260 Apollo 8, 177–180 Apollo 17, 251 Apollo 10, 190, 217, 256 pilots’ reasons for manual control and, 260 Apollo 11, 9–10, 251, 261 pitch over and, 258 computer alarms and, 221–227 scientist-astronauts and, 256–257 descent orbit insertion (DOI) and, 217–218 Apollo 18, 251 Index 337 Armstrong, Neil, 1–3, 213, 241–242, 259 information flows and, 162–163 airmen school and, 29, 31 Instrumentation Laboratory courses and, Apollo 11 and, 217–232 158–159 confusion of, 226 landings and, 181–215 (see also Landings) digital computers and, 87 literature by, 9 Eagle landing and, 217–232 lunar module (LM) design and, 184–186 Gemini and, 85 manual reentry and, 160 gimbal reliability and, 120 masculinity and, 13–14 instrumentation and, 35, 181, 295n53 Mercury and, 73–83 Johnsville tests and, 70–72 moonwalks and, 83, 268–269 Lunar Landing Training Vehicle (LLTV) and, pilot transitions and, 161–166 (see also Pilots) 214 replacement of, 158 Medal of Freedom and, 232 rockets and, 65–66 pilot role and, 80 scientist-astronauts and, 256–257 Society of Experimental Test Pilots (SETP) user errors and, 160 and, 224, 226 women and, 13 X-15 and, 49, 58–59, 61 Astronomical Guidance course, 101 Army Ballistic Missile Agency, 66 AT&T, 37 Artificial horizons, 24 Atlas rocket, 18, 72–77 AS-202, 172 Atomic frequency standards, 138 AS-204, 171 Attitude, 47–48, 77 AS-501, 174–175 Adams’s death and, 59–61 ASPO, 134–135, 139 eight ball and, 159 Astronautical Guidance (Battin), 100–101 landing point designator and, 204–206 Astronauts pitch over and, 251–255 active role of, 65 Automation, 6, 12 age of systems and, 38–41 adaptive control systems and, 57–61 automation and, 158–166 airliners and, 267 as calibrators, 105 Apollo and, 92, 94, 105–109, 119–121, 139– computers and, 66, 160–166 142, 177–180, 243, 258 constraints for, 159–160 astronaut input and, 158–166 control and, 65–66 booster rockets and, 72 dangerous actions and, 159–160 computers and, 123–143 (see also Computers) deaths of, 173 Eagle landing and, 221–227 deployable optics and, 117 future of, 263–271 digital autopilot and, 139–142 Gemini and, 86–88 displays for, 165–169 human factors and, 4–8 (see also Human Eagle landing and, 1–4, 217–232 factors) Explorers Club and, 271 landings and, 181–215 (see also Landings) future of, 263–271 lunar module (LM) and, 193–197, 199–201 Gemini and, 83–88 Mercury and, 73–83 ‘‘go to moon’’ interface and, 160–161 pilots and, 17–21, 26, 43, 66–69, 73–83, human interface and, 4–8, 160–166 (see also 139–142, 259–260 Human factors) Soviet space program and, 88–90, 93–94 338 Index Automation (cont.) Bennett, Floyd, 241, 251, 300n47 stability augmentation system (SAS) and, 55– computer alarms and, 225–226 57, 60 Exceptional Service Medal and, 240 systems engineering and, 36–41 landing design and, 187–188, 192, 207 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) and, 267 technical project summation of, 242–243 Aviation Bikle, Paul, 90 airmen vs. chauffeur school and, 21–23 Black boxes, 34–36, 39, 54, 57, 135 control and, 17–22 Blackburn, Al, 35, 39–40, 68 faster-and-higher goal and, 44 Black Friday, 171 High Speed Flight Station and, 43–44 Blade Runner (film), 13 Kitty Hawk and, 44 Blair, Charles, 40–41 National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics Blair-Smith, Hugh, 126, 149 (NACA) and, 6, 26–28 Blind flying, 24–26, 53–54 pilot’s role and, 17–21 (see also Pilots) Bode, Henrik, 33 skill and, 22–23 Boeing, 92, 267 stability and, 17–22 Bomarc missile, 18, 61 Aviation Week and Space Technology, 179, 267 Bonestell, Chesley, 111 Borman, Frank, 84, 169, 179 B-2 bomber, 266–267 Boston Globe, 248 B-17 bomber, 75 Boston Herald, 179 B-52 bomber, 47–48, 50, 54, 63 Bowditch, Philip, 114 Bales, Steven, 3, 222 Bronson, Charles, 62 Ballistic flight paths, 44 Brown, Alexander, 101 Barnstormers, 10, 20 BURNBABY, 218 Basic (Apollo computer language), 149 Bush, Vannevar, 98 BASIC (Dartmouth computer language), 149 Butler, Rhett, 28 Bassett, Preston, 43 Battin, Richard, 104, 127, 170, 194 Cape Canaveral, 134 Apollo 8 and, 178 Capsule Communicator (CAPCOM), 218, 222 computer errors and, 232 Carpenter, Scott, 81, 121 decision points and, 103 Centrifuge tests, 70–72 lunar mission and, 102–103 Century series jets, 32–33 orbital transfers and, 101–102 Cernan, Gene, 251, 256–260 project management and, 170 Cessnas, 267 Q-guidance technique and, 100 Chance-Vought, 30 recursive estimation of, 102–103 Charles Stark Draper Laboratories, 96–97 software and, 145–146, 151, 158 Chauffeur school, 21–23 Bean, Alan, 236–237, 240 Apollo and, 160–161 Becker, John, 44–45 X-15 and, 46–49 Bell Aerosystems, 210–211 Cheatham, Donald, 186–187, 204 Bellcomm, 135 Cherry, George, 189 Bellman, Donald, 210 Chilton, Robert, 264 Bell Telephone Laboratories, 37, 263 Apollo computer and, 128 Index 339 guidance systems and, 96, 104–107 analog, 52–54, 57–58 pilot role and, 75–77, 91–93 Apollo 4 and, 174–175