CORE Metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk Provided by University of Birmingham Research Archive, E-theses Repository Developing a Framework for Researching Ethnicity and Multiculturalism in New Zealand by John Lowe A thesis submitted to The University of Birmingham for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Sociology School of Government and Society The University of Birmingham September 2009 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. ABSTRACT This thesis examines a variety of theoretical issues relating to ethnicity, multiculturalism and racism in New Zealand. It is argued that whilst the country’s history has been replete with anti-Asiatic racisms, it is necessary to transcend the timeless notion of racism as colour discrimination and to instead, situate past and present anti-Asiatic racisms within the nation’s temporally specific positions in modernity. Through an orientation to time and diachrony, the research considers if a liberal policy of multiculturalism is conducive for contemporary New Zealand society. In view of academic debates suggesting that a ‘practical’ version of multiculturalism exists alongside the country’s constitutional biculturalism, it is argued that the de facto version of multiculturalism exhibits the characteristics of commercial and conservative multiculturalisms which fail to address the problem of racism. A liberal form of multiculturalism, it is maintained, will not produce the best outcome for New Zealand because it is insensitive to indigenous rights and will remain mutually exclusive from biculturalism. This research then concludes with a discussion on the likely future of cosmopolitanism in New Zealand, both as a theory and how it might possibly work in practice without immolating the hegemony of biculturalism. Keywords: New Zealand, New Zealanders, Asia, Asians, Pakeha, Maori, immigration, Treaty of Waitangi, race, racism, ethnicity, biculturalism, multiculturalism, cosmopolitanism. In memory of Jens Richardon BAgrSc (Hons) died tragically in a hit-and-run accident on 06 August 2009 A doctoral scholar in plant science I knew since 2003, I was privileged to discuss certain issues with Jens about multiculturalism and biculturalism when I was in New Zealand during the months of April and May 2009. Though the issues Jens raised are not discussed in this thesis, this research was close to his heart and his efforts to make the world more harmonious, dynamic and unified. I have been blessed by his insights, encouragement and optimism – despite my own pessimism – in cosmopolitanism and my search for a solution to the bicultural-multicultural dilemma. Magnanimous and well ahead of his time, Jens had still so much more to give. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS As I look back on how this thesis came about, I am deeply beholden to a wide range and number of people who took me on without any obvious personal gains. Through their love, energy, advice and enthusiasm, they encouraged me to think of possibilities that I never had the courage to act upon alone. Encouraging and developing potential requires that it first be identified, thus I am humbled by the realisation that many took the risk of opening up opportunities for me that were contingent on promise or academic talent I never knew was there, let alone consider evident. I am beholden to the principal supervisor of this work, Professor Mairtin Mac an Ghaill of the Department of Sociology, University of Birmingham. It did not take him long to spot that my prior philosophical training had equipped me with the analytical skills and fine-tuned attention-to-detail required of a Doctoral thesis capable of addressing the issues here. Sociological research at the Doctoral level leave me inordinately indebted to my supervisor. Under his rigorous supervision, I have significantly broadened both the depth and core of my knowledge, and widened my outlook considerably in recognition of the diverse and challenging possibilities inherent in multiple and competing points of view. His generous encouragement and occasionally humorous affirmation, laced with a no-nonsense approach to the mechanics and rationale of academic endeavour and theoretical inquiry, have provided the healthy structure appropriate for me to take on the unknown with the resolve and confidence that was previously lacking. He must take credit for helping me realise that this was possible with the mantra that I ‘turn it into a PhD’ when back in 2006, I wanted to submit a thesis for the award of an MPhil degree. At that time, I never thought I would manage researching for a Doctoral degree as I was not in possession of a Master’s degree and untrained in research methods. As the direct transfer to doctoral candidature brought about uncertainty and required a complete overhaul of my work, he stayed with me and demonstrated his faith that the doctoral project would be completed. If he had his doubting moments, he did not let me see them. For the necessary grounding in New Zealand history, I am grateful to Dr Jim McAloon, Associate Professor / Reader, Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. His teaching and research par excellence provided me with invaluable knowledge and sufficient insights into the nuances of historical and contemporary New Zealand society when I was an undergraduate student. I am also beholden to all those who encouraged me during those difficult times when I found the demands of this thesis far too overwhelming, beyond my own abilities and contemplated quitting. In particular, there are two people who truly understood the nature of my frustrations with the dilemmas that this study sought to defuse. Nevertheless, because this research was close to their hearts, to quit was to let them down. They believed in this work’s potential to make the world better and kept telling me that through hard work, success was possible. Dr Samuel Maddimadugula (University of Canterbury, Christchurch, NZ) was a mentor and confidante any PhD student would want. Not only did his shining intelligence in ‘the making of a PhD’ and his counseling inspire me to develop patience and perseverance, his wife and family took the time to feed me and magnanimously opened their home to me. Also, the intellectual interest of Joan Gomez- Douglass and her immense faith in the potential of this research propelled me to develop the resilience required to complete it. Every prayer, word and gesture of encouragement from them both are noted and appreciated. Other people have been there for me always, including my superiors, friends and colleagues, and others for the different parts of the research journey. Their care, support, friendship, encouragement, and more are appreciated: Mr John Stevens (prev. Deputy Head, School of Law, University of Birmingham), Professor David Marsh, Dr Keith Morrison, Dr Rupert Tipples, Arpad Szakal, Gurvinder Singh, Nicole Curato, Luke Sharkey, Eileen Tsang, Timothy Hodge, Dave Monks, Peter Littleton, Timothy Walder, Sally Hibbard, Joyce and Gilbert Reid, Grace Rowland. To my colleague Zachary Dixon who successfully completed his PhD in June, for his friendship, humour and listening ear. Between these people, I have been nourished intellectually, physically and emotionally. Finally, I am indebted to my parents for their support and forbearance. I would have never come this far if they did not invest in me. This thesis is therefore dedicated to them. TABLE OF CONTENTS Glossary i Introduction 1 Chapter One The View from Within: The Settlement of New Zealand Society 24 1.1 The making of New Zealand society 25 1.11 The Treaty of Waitangi 28 1.12 The European settlement of New Zealand 31 1.13 The non-European settlement of New Zealand 34 1.14 A new era: from colour to skills and capital 37 1.15 Multicultural or bicultural? 39 Interlude 40 1.2 Literature on the history of New Zealand 43 1.3 Wider disciplines 51 1.4 The importance of temporalism 56 1.5 The literature on biculturalism and multiculturalism 57 1.6 New directions: cosmopolitanism and social theory 60 Conclusion 62 Chapter Two Research Design 64 2.1 Research Objectives 64 2.2 Ontology 67 2.3 Epistemology 70 2.4 Methodology 74 2.41 Primary data collection – rationale and limitations 75 2.42 Research ethics 78 2.43 Reflexivity: theoretical issues 80 2.44 Towards a theoretical framework 82 2.45 The interplay between methodology, methods and published source materials 88 2.5 The role of the theoretical and empirical 89 Conclusion 92 Chapter Three Modernity and Racism in New Zealand: A Socio-historical Perspective 93 3.1 The theoretical framework 95 3.2 Boundary-setting for ‘Better’ and ‘Greater’ Britain 100 3.3 The turning point: 1984 – 113 3.4 Revisiting the synchronic and diachronic 124 Conclusion 126 Chapter Four Un-settled Ethnicities: The Implosion of Ethnic Categories 128 4.1 ‘Asian’ in New Zealand Parlance: A False Essentialism 131 4.11 Unsettled Asian Identities 136 4.12 ‘Black’ in Britain and ‘Asian’ in New Zealand 145 4.13 Political blackness in Britain 148 4.14 The historical