'p MIN INTERNATIONAL WATERS of the MIDDLE EAST FROM EUPHRATES-TIGRIS TO NILE WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT SERIES WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT SERtES 2 International Waters of the Middle East From Euphrates-Tigris to Nile Water Resources Management Series I. Water for Sustainable Development in the Twenty-first Century edited by ASIT K. BIswAs, MOHAMMED JELLALI AND GLENN STOUT International Waters of the Middle East: From Euphrates-Tigris to Nile edited by ASIT K. BlswAs Management and Development of Major Rivers edited by ALY M. SHADY, MOHAMED EL-MOTTASSEM, ESSAM ALY ABDEL-HAFIZ AND AsIT K. BIswAs WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT SERIES : 2 International Waters of the Middle East From Euphrates-Tigris to Nile Edited b' ASIT K. BISWAS Sponsored by United Nations University International Water Resources Association With the support of Sasakawa Peace Foundation United Nations Entne4rogramme' '4RY 1' Am ir THE SASAKAWA PEACE FOUNDATION OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS BOMBAY DELHi CALCUTTA MADRAS 1994 Oxford University Press, Walton Street, Oxford 0X2 6DP Oxford New York Toronto Delhi Bombay Calcutta Madras Karachi KualaLumpur Singapore Hong Kong Tokyo Nairobi Dar esSalaam Cape Town Melbourne Auckland Madrid anji.ssocia:es in Berlin Ibadan First published 1994 © United Nations University, International Water Resources Association, Sasakawa Peace Foundation and United Nations Environ,nent Programme, 1994 ISBN 0 19 563557 4 Printed in India Typeset by Alliance Phototypesetters, Pondicherry 605 013 Printed at Rajkamal Electric Press, Delhi 110 033 Published by Neil O'Brien, Oxford University Press YMCA Library Building, Jai Singh Road, New Delhi 110 001 This hook is dedicated to DR TAKASHI SHIRASU as a mark of esteem for his contributions to peace and a token of true regard for a friend Contents List of Contributors IX Series Preface xi Preface Xiii I. Middle East Water issues: Action and Political Will MOSTAFA KAMAL TOLBA A Hydropolitical History of the Nile, Jordan and Euphrates River Basins AARON T. WOLF 5 Problems of International River Management: The Case of the Euphrates JOHN KOLARS 44 Prospects for Technical Cooperation in the Euphrates-Tigris Basin OZDEN BILEN 95 The Jordan River and the Litani MASA1-IIRO MURAKAMI and KATSUMI MUSIAKE 117 The Nile Basin: Lessons from the Past YAI-IIA ABDEL MAGEEI) 156 Management of International Water Resources: Some Recent Developments ASIT K. BISWAS 185 Index 215 Contributors Ozden Bilen Masuhiro Murakami Water Resources Engineer and Nippon Koei Co. Ltd. Deputy Director General Consulting Engineers General Directorate of 4 Kojimachi State Hydraulic Works (DSI) 5-chome Chiyoda-ku Ankara Tokyo 102 Turkey Japan Asit K. Biswas Katsumi Musiake Chairman Professor Middle East Water Commission Institute of Industrial Science International Water Resources University of Tokyo Association 7-22-I, Roppongi 76 Woodstock Close Minato-ku Oxford 0X2 8DD Tokyo 106 England Japan John Kolars Mostafa Kamal Tolba Professor Emeritus Executive Director (1976-1982) Department of Near Eastern United Nations Environment Studies Programme University of Michigan 46 Mosadek Street Dokki Permanent Address: 424 Mission Road Cairo Egypt Santa Fe NM 87501 Aaron T. Wolf U.S.A. Assistant Professor of Yahia Abdel Mageed Geography Former Secretary General University of Alabama 202 Farrah Hall U. N. Water Conference Box 870322 Associated Consultants Tuscaloosa P. 0. Box 2960 AL 35487 Khartoum The Sudan U. S. A. Series Preface: Water Resources Management In recent years there has been increasing realization of the importance of water in the continuing well-being and development of mankind. In nearly all countries of the world, ranging from Algeria to Zimbabwe, more and more planners and decision-makers have started to realize the critical importance of efficient water resources management for their sustainable development. Even in an advanced industrialized country like the United States, water availability and its rational management has become a major socio-political issue, especially in the western and south- western parts of the county. On the basis of extensive analyses carried out, it is now evident that compared to earlier generations of water development projects, new sources of water are becoming scarce, more expensive to develop, require more expertise and technological knowhow for planning, design, implementation and operation, and are contributing to more social and environmental disruptions. Accordingly, it is being increasingly realized that water can no longer be considered to be a cheap resource, which can be profligately used, abused or squandered without noticeable consequ- ences for the future of mankind. Like oil some two decades ago, the day when water could be considered a cheap and plentiful resource is now over in most countries of the world. If the current trends continue, the situation is likely to deteriorate even further in the future for two important reasons. First, the global population is increasing rapidly, and is likely to continue to do so till about the year 2050, or even beyond. This means more and more water would be required for domestic and industrial uses, agricultural production and hydropower generation for this expanding population. Second, as more and more people attain a higher standard of living, per capita water demand would continue to increase as well. Current analyses indicate that the total global water consumption during the period 1900-2000 is likely to increase ten-fold, and this trend is likely to extend well into the twenty-first century. In addition, as human population and activities increase, more and more waste products are contaminating available sources of surface water as well as groundwater. Among the major contaminants are un- treated or partially treated sewage, agricultural chemicals and industrial xii / Series Preface: Water Resources Management effluents. These contaminants are seriously affecting the quality of avail- able sources of water for various uses. Thus, water quality management is becoming increasingly an important concern all over the world. Another major factor which could affect water management in the future is likely to be increasing delays in implementing new projects. Higher project costs and lack of investment funds would be two major reasons for this delay. Equally, social and environmental reasons would significantly delay project initiation time, certainly more than what has been witnessed in the recent decades. Since on a long-term basis the amount of water available to any country is limited, the traditional response of the past to increase water availability to meet higher and higher water demands would no longer be a feasible solution in the future. This means that water professionals will come under increasing strain to make the management process more efficient than it has ever been at any time in human history. However, the transition period available to us to significantly improve the water planning and management processes is likely to be short, certainly not more than a decade or at most two. While technological problems, though complex, may prove comparatively easy to solve, economic, political, social and environmental constraints are likely to be more difficult to resolve. Thus a proper approach to the solution of water problems is one of the most difficult challenges facing water management in the twenty-first century. The Water Resources Management series of books, monographs and state-of-the-art reviews consist of authoritative texts written by some of the world's leading experts in their field. The series as a whole will consider all aspects of water—quantity and quality, surface water and groundwater—from the viewpoints of all the major associated disciplines, i.e. technical, economic, social, environmental, legal, health and political. It will also consider all types of water use: domestic, industrial, agricultural, hydropower generation, navigation, recreation and wildlife enhancement. Individual books may of course have more specific focus. The books of the series would not only be of direct interest to students and professors but also to all professionals associated with water resources planning and management. ASIT K. BISWAS International Development Centre University of Oxford 76 Woodstock Close Oxford, England Preface More than two thousand years agQ, the eminent Greek philosopher Pindar said water is the best of all things. For the countries of the Middle East, which are currently facing serious water scarcity conditions, Pindar's view under the existing conditions can probably be best viewed as an understatement. Because of the critical importance of water for the further socio- economic development of the Middle East, and the complexity of the water management process of the various countries involved, the Committee on International Waters of the international Water Resources Association (IWRA) convened a Middle East Water Forum in Cairo, 7-9 February 1993. As the Chairman of the Committee, I had the privilege to convene this important Forum. Participation to the Forum was strictly restricted to well-known experts by invitation only. Twenty-seven leading authorities on Middle East waters were carefully selected and invited because of their acknowledged expertise and interest in this field. Participants to the Forum were invited in their private capacities for a free and frank exchange of ideas, opinions and facts. The Forum was officially opened by Dr Mostafa K. Tolba. former Executive Director of the UNEP. In his opening