Teaching Chishona in Zimbabwe: A Curriculum Analysis Approach by Tafara Mufanechiya [email protected] Teacher Development Department, Great Zimbabwe University & Albert Mufanechiya [email protected] Curriculum Studies Department, Great Zimbabwe University Abstract ChiShona is spoken by many in Zimbabwe, thus the purpose of this paper is to outline the history of the language Chishona and the justification for teaching it as a part of the Zimbabwean school curriculum via a focus on language standardisation and harmonisation, and the challenges in the teaching ChiShona. Historical Background of ChiShona There are several dimensions as to where the word ‘ChiShona’ came from. According to the Encyclopedia Britannica (1980: 163) the Shona “are a group of culturally similar Bantu- speaking tribes of Negroid-Armenoid origin, numbering someone million in the 1960s”. Mutswairo (1996) says that the so called ‘Shona’ are ‘Mbire’ and not Shona. The ancestors of the Mbire were part of the general Negroid population that was later called Bantu by a number of European linguists who had undertaken studies in African languages. Beach, in Mutswairo (1996) states that some place this migration between 300 and 200 B.C. and that by between 500 and 300 B.C. the Black people had filled the entire sub- region as far south as the Eastern Cape. Mutswairo (1996: 8) says, “This migration forms part of the general pattern that includes the ancestors of the Mbire from Guruuswa; now referred to as the Shona”. 35 The Journal of Pan African Studies, vol.8, no.8, November 2015 When Europeans came into this region in 1890, they identified two districts, namely Mashonaland and Matebeleland. Matebeleland was the district for the Ndebele speaking people and Mashonaland was the district of the Shona speaking people (Kahari, 1990).The term ‘Shona’ therefore referred to the people and ‘ChiShona’ the language of the Shona people. In its broadest sense ‘ChiShona’ represents the language, habits, beliefs, culture and wisdom of the Shona people. As a representation of all these aspects, we have ‘ChiShona’ as a subject in the Zimbabwean school curriculum. Specifically, the term ChiShona came into use in the 19th Century (Mutswairo, 1996). Magwa (1999) says that it is believed that the word Shona originated from the Ndebele. This is because the Shona ancestors lived in the Western region which the Ndebele called ‘esitshonalanga’. From this word came the name AmaTshona which became ChiShona we know today. Despite all these dimensions, what is interesting is that Magwa (1999), Doke (1931), Mutswairo (1996), Chimhundu (1997) and many others all agree that ChiShona is an amalgamation of five main sub-languages namely; Chikaranga, ChiNdau, ChiManyika Chizezuru and Chikorekore. Therefore, ChiShona is not exclusive; this explains why we do really understand each other despite the various languages. The unification of the Shona started off with the missionaries in the hope of spreading the gospel. The missionary conference that met in 1901 accepted an alphabet for universal unification and application in Mashonaland. Thus, Springer, in Doke (1931:4) says, “….it is possible to have one Bible for the whole of Mashonaland”. The major languages were studied and written in different geographical regions, the regional or social language of Zezuru was studied at Chishawasha (1892), Waddilove (1896) and Epworth under father A. Burbridge, A.M. Hartmann, J. White and W.A. Elliot. Ndau was studied at Chikore and Mount Selinda under the American Board Missionaries in 1893. The Manyika language was studied at St Augustine’ s Penalonga in 1893; at Old Umtali and also at Triashill in 1890 under the Catholic fathers like D.R. Pelly, E.H. Etheridge and Mrs A.E. Springer. The Karanga language was studied at Morgenster in 1892, Mukaro and Gokomere under the tutelage of prominent figures like Father A.A. Louw, Mrs C.S. Louw, Father J.T. Helm and A.A. Louw (junior) (Kahari, 1990). Each missionary society had been following its own method of writing, hence varying orthography. This resulted in chaos, confusion and misunderstandings. Therefore, the missionaries in an effort to produce a common version of the Bible for the Shona people did a lot of work in the early writing of the Shona language, and later, they agreed on a Common Shona Orthography (Magwa, 1999). 36 The Journal of Pan African Studies, vol.8, no.8, November 2015 It is important that there are two types of the Shona language, the spoken and written forms. Within the origins of ChiShona there were shifts and turns mainly to transform ChiShona from an oral to written form. Emphasis was now in changes in orthography. Several meetings were held by the missionaries in 1903, 1905 and 1908 respectively in an effort to solve the existing differences in spellings and word division. This continued until 1913 when they agreed that there was need for government involvement and assistance. In 1928 the government agreed that ChiShona should be taught at primary school level. The thorny issue of common spelling and orthography arrived, however, the missionaries could not agree on a common language to represent the Shona language. After this fiasco, Professor Clement Doke, a South African language expert was called in to assist in the writing of the Shona language. Doke is credited as the first person to produce the first Shona alphabet. He started the work in 1929 with the help of other missionaries from the Southern Rhodesia Missionary Conference, like B.H. Barnes representing the minority field of Manyika and Ndau, A. Louw representing Karanga and Burbridge representing Zezuru (Magwa, 1999). The study of individual regional languages was of great help to Professor Doke when he drew up his report on Shona in 1929, and his comparative study in 1931(Kahari, 1990). The observations made by Doke were that the five Shona specific regional languages use a number of words that are similar, which made his work easier. He used Zezuru as the starting base because it was common in all the other specific regional or social group languages. In 1931, Doke used the word ChiShona to represent all five languages (Doke, 1931). Thus, Chimhundu (1997) states that Doke designed a unified orthography for Shona and made a number of important recommendations on language which has remained the major reference point in the history of writing in Shona. From 1931 all Shona words were written using Doke’s alphabet. Doke’s findings were accepted and became operational in all schools and in government departments. Doke’s document was used in the Shona literature as from 1931 1955 where changes were effected by an orthography committee and the changes basically involved the special phonetic symbols. All the 1931 letters that could not be computed were changed. All published books had to use the 1955 orthography for example as in Feso by S. Mutswairo. This was up to 1967, Magwa (1999). The 1967 agreed orthography is the current Shona orthography and it includes spelling, word division, capital letters and punctuations. It was agreed that such letters as L, Q. and X are not used in Shona. Thus, the system of writing that we use in ChiShona today was fixed by Doke many years ago, although with some modifications. The dictionaries by Barnes, Hannan and the current ALLEX project owe a lot from Doke’s landmark recommendations on Shona orthography (Chimhundu, 1997). 37 The Journal of Pan African Studies, vol.8, no.8, November 2015 Standardisation and Harmonisation of the Shona Language Efforts or work that helped the standardisation and harmonisation of the Shona language can be understood as falling into two major periods. The early work would start with missionaries and Doke’s efforts which were later consolidated by George Fortune and others. The second phase would be attributed to the efforts of African scholars led by Herbert Chimhundu, Wiseman Magwa, Pedzisai Mashiri, Kutsirayi Gondo, Andy Chabanne and Kwesi Prah from 2006. The process is sometimes referred to as the unification process of ChiShona. As mentioned above, Doke (1931) was the first author of a process of standardising and harmonising the Shona language. Before Doke’s (1931) efforts, different missionary groups located in Mashonaland province had produced different writing systems of ChiShona that were produced using the language variety that was predominantly used in the area where the church group was first founded in Zimbabwe. Thus, we find that in Manicaland, four orthographies evolved at St Augustine Mission (Anglican, 1897), Old Mutare Mission (Methodist, 1890) and Mt Selinda and Chikore Missions (American Board Missions, 1893). In Masvingo, there was mostly the Morgenster Mission orthography (Dutch Reformed Church, 1892). In Mashonaland, there was Chishawasha Mission (Roman Catholic, 1892) and Waddilove Mission (Methodist, 1896). All these missionary centres had developed their own writing systems that were based on the historical origins of the missionary groups. For example, those who came from German used German language influences to come up with a ChiShona writing system for the centre. The same applied for those from Britain, Holland and others. This system had produced a multiple of orthographies of writing ChiShona in Zimbabwe. Hence, Bibles, hymns and other church materials were produced differently by these missionary stations. From 1903, the Southern African Missionary Conference for all church organisations working in Zimbabwe began to discuss efforts to produce a unitary writing system for ChiShona to help produce one Bible that could be used throughout Mashonaland. This marked the beginning of standardisation and harmonisation of various ChiShona language varieties in Zimbabwe. Thus several efforts by the Southern Rhodesia Missionary Conference continued to discuss the issue of standardisation and harmonisation of all language varieties in Mashonaland in all its meetings from 1903 to 1928. And in this process, they enlisted the support of the Southern Rhodesia government in 1913 when the government saw the need to unify the language varieties of Mashonaland in order to make their teaching easier in the schools.