On the infl uence of indigenous languages on Brazilian Portuguese http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0102-445078233462133543 D E L TA Endangered languages in Brazil* Línguas em perigo de extinção no Brasil Aryon D. RODRIGUES (CNWS and University of Brasília) 1. The social importance of the indigenous languages The culture of every human society is the result of a specifi c res- ponse to the challenges nature and other human societies have imposed through millennia to human survival in physical and mental health. Even the culture of the least human society is a complete universe of integrated knowledge, strongly bound to the milieu where it was developed but also accumulating experience of the remotest past. The native language of a society is not only the means of communication that keeps social solidarity, but it is also the basic means of organizing and storing experience and knowledge. Every human language is unique in the way it codifi es knowledge and experience, for it has been shaped and reshaped following the needs for the adequate expression of an extremely diversifi ed and variable complex of mental representations. A true understanding of mankind can ideally be achieved only with the knowledge of every particular culture and society. This implies that * Symposium on Endangered Languages of South America. Rijks Universiteit Leiden, December 2, 1993. D.E.L.T.A., 30 especial, 2014 (447-463) 30 esp. 2014 Aryon D. Rodrigues every unique key for an in-deep accessing of the culture of the society that speaks it. In the course of history and prehistory many cultures and many languages have disappeared from the face of the earth. With some fragmentary exceptions, their knowledge is lost and unretrievable. The same is true of the non-human companions of man on the world, the animals and the plants. But what has been for millennia, in the one and in the other case, a matter of sporadic accidents, only rarely inten- sifi ed by cataclysmic events, is becoming in the last few centuries a growing process if systematic destruction not only of animal and plant species, but also of human languages and cultures. The exacerbated predatory and imperialist spirit that became an important feature of modern civilization has led to a vertiginous destruction of genetic and cultural diversity in large parts of the world. Even where there is plenty of space for peaceful coexistence , minority peoples are not allowed to carry freely their own ways of life and strong pressure is exerted on them for assimilating to the mainstream culture and language. The maintenance of the native language favours a smooth evolution of the respective culture, even under strong outside pressure, enabling people to incorporate new knowledge without systematically losing their old wisdom. This is vital not only for the healthy psychological equilibrium of the individuals, but also for the social and economic adaptation to new situations. If a community is compelled to abandon its native language in a too short space of time, say in one or two ge- nerations, a too large break occurs in the transmission of old concepts and knowledge, long before new knowledge and new experiences can mature and become integrated and functional. The whole community will fall in a culturally void space and people will become dependent on foreigners for the simplest actions and get impoverished both eco- nomically and culturally. This has been the fate of many communities exposed to coloni- zation. Of course language loss is not the only factor affecting such situations; it is very often associated with economic, political, and 448 religious abuse on the part of an encroaching, powerful society. 30 esp. Endangered languages in Brazil 2014 For the minority peoples that managed so far to preserve their language it is essential to stop to be directly or indirectly pushed to abandon this language. It is equally essential for them to receive se- rious, well founded and well planned help for coping with the extre- mely delicate problem of getting effective access to and control of a dominant language and culture without losing the command of their own language, the knowledge of their own culture, and the control of the very diffi cult situation they are confronting as subjects (frequently involuntary) of a modern state. This means to have the opportunity of having sound programs of bilingual/ bicultural education. 2. Short overview of the linguistic scene The territory of Brazil with its 8.500.000 km² embraces most of the lowlands of South America, including most of Amazonia. This territory was formerly occupied by many indigenous peoples, the so- called Indians or Amerindians, which spoke a very large number of languages. As a consequence of the conquest of the territory by the Europeans and their descendants, in the course of the last fi ve hundred years there was an enormous reduction in the number of indigenous peoples and languages. The Portuguese as carriers of Western culture arrived in Brazil in the last year of the 15th century, 1500, and, as pio- neers of modern expansionism, soon engaged in one of the most wild exploitation enterprises the world has known, draining intensively not only mineral, fl oral, and animal resources, but also native human ener- gy. The indigenous peoples, if friendly, were seen by most settlers as sources of cheap workers to be exploited to exhaustion, and if hostile , were seen as obstacle to be removed until extermination. It is enough to recall that the General Governor of Brazil in the middle of the 16th century, Mem de Sá, recorded himself in written form that, having some Indians of the Paraguaçu river attacked a few Portuguese, he raided the region with his troops and put afi re more than one hundred villages. This same Governor exterminated the Caeté people in Per- nambuco and the Tamoyo people in Rio de Janeiro, and thereafter was highly praised in an epic poem composed in Latin, “De gestis Mendi de Saa”, by Father Anchieta, on his turn highly praised by clergymen and laymen as the “Apostle of Brazil”. 449 30 esp. 2014 Aryon D. Rodrigues Only recently more attention is being given by historians, archae- ologists, anthropologists, and linguists to the process of depopulation of the Indians and to the proportions it reached. Huge areas were soon emptied out of Indians and others became progressively territory of Portuguese or of Língua geral speaking mestizos. Língua geral is the name given in colonial Brazil to an originally indigenous language that became the common language of mestizos, white men, and Indians submitted by these, not as a pidgin, but as the continued mother tongue of children of indigenous mothers and white fathers. There has been two línguas gerais, both based on Tupí-Guaraní languages, a southern one (língua geral paulista), expanding from São Paulo into the southern and central provinces and a northern one (língua geral amazônica or nheengatú), spreading from Pará westwards into Amazonia. The southern língua geral became extinct in most of its domain in the se- cond half of the 18th century, and its last speakers have probably lived in some places until the end of the 19th century. The northern língua geral is yet spoken, but it has been losing ground to Portuguese since the beginning of the 20th century and counts now with no more than 3,000 speakers. According with a recent estimate (Rodrigues 1993), about 75% of the languages spoken in Brazilian territory fi ve hundred years ago disappeared. This notwithstanding, the number of languages spoken today in Brazil is between 160 and 180, but none of these counts with a population large enough to ensure its future. Indeed, the most populous indigenous language in Brazil is Tikúna (or Tukú- na), which has 18,000 speakers in Brazil and about 4,000 in Peru and Colombia. Next comes Makuxí with about 15,000 speakers and Kaingang and Teréna spoken by a little more than 10,000 persons each. All other languages have less than 10,000 speakers, the majo- rity of them less than 1,000, as can be seen in Table 1. Of 166 lan- guages fi guring in this table only 26 are spoken by more than 1,000 people, whereas 110 have only 400 or less speakers. The number of languages spoken by only 100 or less persons is almost one third of the total of surviving languages. Other numerical relations can be seen in fi gure 1. 450 30 esp. Endangered languages in Brazil 2014 Most of the languages spoken today are to be found in northern and western Brazil, that is to say, in the innermost regions of the country. Portuguese colonization started from the Atlantic coast in the East and progressively wiped out most indigenous peoples on its way. Only three indigenous languages of Eastern Brazil are yet being regularly passed on to the children: Yatê in Pernambuco, Maxakalí in Minas Gerais, and Xokleng in Santa Catarina. It is true that there are now many speakers of Mbiá, a Guaraní dialect, in South-eastern Brazil (and a few in Northern Brazil), but these are very recent mi- grants from the valley of the Paraná River in the Southwest. Even in Northern Brazil, however, there are areas where the original indigenous languages disappeared almost completely. One important case is the valley of the Amazon stream, where the big nations whose villages extended continuously on both banks as reported by the fi rst Spanish and Portuguese explorer, have left no trace of them-selves but some archeological remains. Indigenous peoples and languages are almost totally absent in an extension of about 1,800 km along the valley and about 250 km from each river bank, with additional extensions in the valleys of the major tributaries.