WASTED VISITS? ECOTOURISM IN THEORY VS. PRACTICE , AT TORTUGUERO, COSTA RICA by Zoë Angela Meletis Department of Environment Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Lisa M. Campbell, Supervisor ___________________________ Belinda Dodson ___________________________ Robert G. Healy ___________________________ Randall A. Kramer ___________________________ Wendy Wolford Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Environment in the Graduate School of Duke University 2007 ABSTRACT WASTED VISITS? ECOTOURISM IN THEORY VS. PRACTICE , AT TORTUGUERO, COSTA RICA by Zoë Angela Meletis Department of Environment Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Lisa M. Campbell, Supervisor ___________________________ Belinda Dodson ___________________________ Robert G. Healy ___________________________ Randall A. Kramer ___________________________ Wendy Wolford An abstract of a dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Environment in the Graduate School of Duke University 2007 Copyright by Zoë Angela Meletis 2007 Abstract In this dissertation, I contemplate ecotourism in theory and in practice. I use the case study of a solid waste crisis (2002‐2004) in Tortuguero, Costa Rica, a turtle tourism destination, to explore: the consumptive nature of ecotourism, tourist perceptions of the environment, ecotourism aesthetics, local resistance to ecotourism development, local perceptions of ecotourism’s environmental impacts, and the future of ecotourism. I used mixed methods including participant observation, semi‐structured interviews, and on‐ site surveys to collect data. I conducted mainly qualitative analysis (thematic coding; adapted grounded theory) influenced by political ecology, environmental justice, resistance studies, tourism studies, and the geography of tourism. My use of environmental justice concepts to frame the solid waste crisis in Tortuguero, and the application of key concepts from Scott’s (1981) Weapons of the Weak to local behavior and narratives both represent fairly novel applications in an ecotourism context. I attempted to move beyond a restricted case study by emphasizing characteristics shared between Tortuguero and other sites, in the hopes of contributing towards efforts to inject new theoretical applications into tourism studies. This case study reveals the consumptive side of ecotourism, and the analysis of tourist survey responses highlights the central role of aesthetics in ecotourism. This project challenges simplistic portrayals of ecotourism as ‘benevolent and benign’ (e.g. by highlighting its consumptive impacts and iv related injustices), and of ecotourists as more aware and altruistic than mass tourists (e.g. by presenting a heterogeneous group of respondents who none the less, stress aesthetics). It updates existing literature on Tortuguero by presenting data on tourist and local perceptions of Tortuguero, and by suggesting explanations for divergent perceptions of the park’s role in ecotourism, for example. The evidence that I present of local resistance and waste‐related injustices suggest that despite its high profile reputation, multimillion dollar annual revenues, improved local standards of living, and green turtle conservation successes, critical details and key voices have largely been ‘left out of the story of ecotourism in Tortuguero’. I hope that this study contributes to encouraging the culture of ‘greater ecotourism realism’ that is needed in order to move forward. v Dedication For the people of Tortuguero, my family and friends (it takes a village) vi Contents Abstract .........................................................................................................................................iv Dedication .....................................................................................................................................vi List of Tables.............................................................................................................................. xiii List of Figures .............................................................................................................................xiv Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................xv Introduction ...................................................................................................................................1 Objectives....................................................................................................................4 Why Tortuguero? ....................................................................................................14 Methods ....................................................................................................................17 Structure and voice .................................................................................................21 Chapter 1: Call it consumption! (Re)conceptualizing ecotourism as consumption and consumptive ................................................................................................................................26 Introduction..............................................................................................................27 Unpacking the assumptions ..................................................................................30 No direct consumption of wildlife occurs in ecotourism ................................30 Direct consumption of wildlife is incompatible with ecotourism..................31 Direct consumption of wildlife is the only issue of concern ...........................34 Non‐consumptive use via ecotourism is superior............................................41 Situating ecotourism in wider debates about moralizing consumption........45 vii Re‐conceptualizing ecotourism .............................................................................49 Chapter 2: Looking upon ‘nature’ and gazing upon garbage: Tourist perceptions of Tortuguero, Costa Rica...............................................................................................................57 Introduction..............................................................................................................58 Theoretical background........................................................................................61 The ecotourist gaze and the ecotourism aesthetic ............................................61 Keeping up appearances: the demands of the ecotourist aesthetic ...............65 Solid waste and the ecotourist gaze....................................................................66 Tortuguero, Costa Rica.........................................................................................68 Tortuguero’s idealized image..............................................................................68 Site description ......................................................................................................69 The solid waste crisis ............................................................................................74 Methods ....................................................................................................................79 Tourist population and sampling .......................................................................79 Survey design and data collection ......................................................................80 Data analysis ..........................................................................................................82 Interpretation of codes..........................................................................................84 Results.......................................................................................................................84 Respondent demographics and travel characteristics......................................84 Tourist interests .....................................................................................................87 viii Tourist perceptions of the beach .........................................................................88 Tourist perceptions of the village .......................................................................93 Tortuguero National Park....................................................................................98 Respondent perceptions of tourism in Tortuguero........................................102 What tourists liked the most and least about Tortuguero.............................105 Discussion...............................................................................................................107 Respondent perceptions of the local environment in general ......................112 Respondents notice trash on the beach and in the village.............................115 Respondents failed to make connections.........................................................118 Respondents were concerned about crowding, growth and authenticity ..119 Respondents were satisfied ...............................................................................121 Key management implications..........................................................................124 Meeting expectations and fitting with the gaze is key...................................124 Make the trash