Algae: Source to Treatment AWWA MANUAL M57 First Edition Copyright © 2010 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved. Contents List of Figures, vii List of Tables, xv Preface, xvii Acknowledgments, xix Introduction, xxiii SECTION I METHODS . 1. Chapter 1 Recent Developments in Online Monitoring Technology for Surveillance of Algal Blooms, Potential Toxicity, and Physical– Chemical Structure in Rivers, Reservoirs, and Lakes . 3 Summary, 3 Introduction, 5 Deployment and Operational Considerations in Online Monitoring Programs, 6 Pigment Sensors: Field Measurements Versus Laboratory Methods, 8 Multiparameter Water Quality Sondes and Pigment-Specific Sensors, 11 Examples of Water-Column Monitoring: Profiling Platforms, AUV Technology, and Buoy-Based Systems, 14 Online Instruments for Characterizing Source Waters, 17 Limitations of Online and Real-Time Monitoring Equipment, 20 Field Methods Used in Conjunction With Online Monitoring, 20 Future Directions, 22 References, 23 Chapter 2 Sampling and Identification: Methods and Strategies . .25 Aquatic Environments and Algal Communities in Surface Water Utilities, 26 Sampling, 28 Analytical Methods, 44 Quality Assurance, 65 References and Bibliography, 65 Chapter 3 Detection of Cyanotoxins During Potable Water Treatment . 71. Cyanotoxin Standards, 72 Sample Preparation, 72 Total Cyanotoxins, 75 Screening Assays, 76 Analytical Techniques, 79 Qualitative and Quantitative Methods for Toxic Cyanobacteria, 79 References, 86 iii Copyright © 2010 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved. Chapter 4 Algal Chlorophylls: A Synopsis of Analytical Methodologies . .93 Sample Processing and Pigment Extraction, 97 Spectrophotometric Assessment, 99 Fluorometric Assessment, 101 Chromatographic Assessment, 104 Chlorophyll Radiolabeling, 109 In Situ Assessment, 110 Summary and Evaluation, 113 References, 115 SECTION II THE ORGANISMS . .123 Chapter 5 Cyanobacteria . .125 Biology, 125 Taxonomy, 128 Ecology, 129 Significance, 131 Management and Mitigation of Cyanobacteria and Their Toxins, 132 Identification, 133 Key to Common Cyanobacteria Genera, 134 References, 143 Chapter 6 Chlorophyta . .147 Biology, 147 Taxonomy, 152 Ecology, 154 Significance, 157 Identification, 159 Key to Morphological Group, 161 References, 164 Chapter 7 Euglenophyta . 167. Biology, 167 Taxonomy, 168 Key to Freshwater Genera of Photosynthetic Euglenoids, 169 References, 174 Chapter 8 Dinophyta . 177. Biology, 177 Taxonomy, 179 Ecology, 182 Key to Genera, 184 References, 184 iv Copyright © 2010 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved. Chapter 9 Cryptophyta . 187. Biology, 188 Ecology, 191 Significance, 192 Key for Identification of Cryptomonad Genera, 193 Descriptions of Genera, 194 References, 202 Chapter 10 Bacillariophyta: The Diatoms . 207. General Introduction to the Diatoms, 207 Significance of Diatoms to the Drinking Water Industry, 212 Diatom Identification to Genus, 219 Acknowledgments, 246 References, 246 Chapter 11 Chrysophyta . 249. General Description, 249 Biology, 250 Ecology, 260 References, 262 Chapter 12 Xanthophyta and Phaeophyta . .271 Biology, 271 Ecology, 275 Significance, 279 Key for Identification to Divisions and Classes, 281 Useful Information and References for Identification, With Keys to Common Genera, 282 References, 284 Chapter 13 Rhodophyta . .289 General Introduction to Red Algae, 289 Biology, 289 Key to Genera, 291 Ecology, 292 Significance, 294 Identification, 294 References, 296 SECTION III MANAGEMENT . 297. Chapter 14 Source Water Assessment and Control/Treatment Strategies for Harmful and Noxious Algae . 299. Summary, 299 Introduction, 301 v Copyright © 2010 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved. Source Water Assessment, 302 Mitigative and Control Strategies, 314 Future Directions, 323 References, 325 Chapter 15 Algal Taste and Odor . .329 Introduction, 329 Diagnosing the Species and Their Chemicals, 331 Chemistry, 346 Algal Odor Compounds: Pathways, Properties, and Producers, 349 Algal Taxa, 361 Nonalgal Biological Odor Moderators and Sources, 363 Large-Scale Factors, 365 Protocols, Measures, and Other Considerations, 366 Summary and Conclusions, 367 References, 369 Chapter 16 Control of Cyanotoxins in Drinking Water Treatment . 377. Physicochemical Characteristics of Freshwater Cyanotoxins, 378 Intracellular Cyanotoxins versus Extracellular Cyanotoxins, 378 Health-Based Guidelines for Cyanotoxins, 379 Cyanotoxin Occurence, 380 Cyanotoxin Control, 380 Summary, 391 Acknowledgments, 392 References, 392 Chapter 17 Algae Removal Strategies . .395 Treatment Processes, 396 Plant Optimization, 408 Conclusions, 412 References, 412 Glossary . .415 Index . .425 List of AWWA Manuals . 439. vi Copyright © 2010 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved. Section I Methods Copyright © 2010 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved. AWWA MANUAL M57 Chapter 1 Recent Developments in Online Monitoring Technology for Surveillance of Algal Blooms, Potential Toxicity, and Physical–Chemical Structure in Rivers, Reservoirs, and Lakes Robert E. Reed, JoAnn M. Burkholder, and Elle H. Allen SUMMARY ________________________________________________ Disclaimer: The vendors, manufacturers, and equipment described in this work were chosen as representative examples of the types of instrumentation currently commercially available for use in the water-quality monitoring field. The inclusion of these examples does not constitute an endorsement by the Center for Applied Aquatic Ecology, North Carolina State, or AWWA. Sensor development and the area of online monitoring is changing rapidly, therefore individuals interested in specific monitoring areas or equip- ment types are encouraged to use an Internet Web search to determine all possibilities. Previous AWWA manuals and review papers have discussed the application of many online monitoring tools (e.g., Grayman et al. 2001, Knappe et al. 2004, Glasgow 3 Copyright © 2010 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved. 4 ALGAE: SOURCE TO TREATMENT et al. 2004), but in the last ca. five years significant advances have been made in com- munication technology and instrument development, resulting in the introduction of many new products that are useful in monitoring algae and associated water quality parameters. The main objective of this chapter is to introduce the reader to new devel- opments in online monitoring using Web-based technologies and real-time or near- real-time sensors useful in the detection and monitoring of algae. Specific instruments and their limitations will be described, as well as case studies of monitoring programs that are currently operational. Suggestions are included of an appropriate strategy for managing a program with the ultimate goal to track algal blooms and associated physical–chemical conditions in surface freshwater sources. A successful online monitoring program requires appropriate planning in the installation and deployment of online monitoring equipment, and in choosing methods for the acquisition and postprocessing of the data for efficient operational and manage- ment decisions. Large amounts of data are acquired by this type of program due to the short-time-scale sampling that is possible with presently available equipment. More- over, efficient communication systems enable rapid uploads of data to the data acquisi- tion computer (DAC) and Web site. The rapid development in this technology has led to availability of dedicated hardware and software through many commercial vendors. It is also possible for a water treatment plant or municipality to create custom-designed systems for specific problems using commercially available hardware and in-house information technology personnel. Initial investment in planning will yield an online system with functional, valuable data products to assist operators and managers. Recent important developments in pigment sensor technology have enabled improved tracking of algal blooms in real time and provide an early warning system for water treatment plant operators and managers. Various manufacturers have inte- grated both chlorophyll (indicator of total phytoplankton biomass) and phycocyanin pigment sensors (the latter, a major pigment in cyanobacteria) into multiparameter water quality sondes, allowing remote assessments of relative fluorescence. These remote data inform interested parties of impending or existing changes in algal bio- mass in real time or near-real time. With this early warning, dedicated field samples can be taken to quantitatively assess biomass, species composition, cyanotoxins, taste and odor compounds, and other parameters of interest. Remotely acquired online data for algal pigments are in relative fluorescence units, however, and should be calibrated for each bloom event by dedicated discrete field sampling for chlorophyll a and phyco- cyanin concentrations, and through analysis by standardized laboratory methods. Many options for instrumentation and modes of deployment are available for establishing a Web-based online monitoring system. Laboratory-based instruments include various flow-through devices that can be installed in-line with source water to give an accurate real-time assessment of algal blooms. In addition to standard pack- ages for environmental conditions, these instruments include the above-mentioned pigment sensors. Recently, a quantitative biosensor also became commercially avail- able, which uses bluegill sunfish as “sentinels” for toxic conditions in source waters. This technology