CANADIAN FOREIGN AID AND THE CHRISTIAN RIGHT: STEPHEN HARPER, ABORTION, AND THE GLOBAL CULTURE WARS IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA, 2006–2015 Erin Jex A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies in fulfillment of the requirements for the M.A. in Political Science with a specialization in Women’s Studies Faculty of Social Sciences School of Political Studies University of Ottawa © Erin Jex, Ottawa, Canada, 2017 ii Abstract This thesis expands upon the concept of the global culture wars in sub-Saharan Africa from a Canadian perspective, focusing on the growing division within Canada between conservative, religious values and liberal, progressive ones (Caplan, 2012). This division led to a political and cultural realignment alongside the increased visibility and leadership of religious and faith communities in Canadian public and political life. Amidst this polarization, Conservative Party leader Stephen Harper was elected Prime Minister in February 2006. Under his leadership, a conservative, pro-family agenda was established. This agenda, which advocates a traditional understanding of family life and structure, in particular refers to a legally married, heterosexual couple with children. It was supported by the evangelical Christian population in Canada, which grew from a united religious community in Canada into a significant constituency of the Conservative Party. Harper’s tenure, coupled with the increased visibility and leadership of faith and religious communities significantly affected domestic and international policies during his tenure as Prime Minister, from 2006 to 2015. This thesis examines the Muskoka Initiative on Maternal, Child, and Newborn Health (Muskoka-MNCH) and shows how this initiative, which fostered anti-abortion rhetoric abroad, was utilized to appease the evangelical community’s anti- abortion position in Canada. iii Table of Contents Abstract .............................................................................................................................. ii List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... v List of Figures ................................................................................................................... vi Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... vii Introduction .................................................................................................................... viii Overview ...................................................................................................................... viii Area of Focus ............................................................................................................... xiii Relevance ...................................................................................................................... xv Literature Review ......................................................................................................... xvii Religious Studies Literature: Evangelicalism and The Christian Right ..................... xvii The Global Culture Wars: History, the United States, and the Rest of the World ...... xix Feminist / Women’s Studies Literature ...................................................................... xxv Foreign Aid Literature ............................................................................................... xxvi Research Methods / Methodological Framework ........................................................ xxviii Methodological Concerns ........................................................................................ xxviii Limitations: Literature Gaps and Research Limits .................................................... xxxi Chapter 1: Canadian Evangelical Christianity: The Pro-Family Agenda and Stephen Harper ................................................................................................................. 1 Who are the Evangelical Christians? .............................................................................. 1 The Christian Right ......................................................................................................... 4 History and Influence of the United States ..................................................................... 5 Effects of Nationalism and Civil Identity on Religious Development ........................... 7 Cross Border Links ......................................................................................................... 7 What Do They Believe? .................................................................................................. 9 Evangelical Christianity and Morality .......................................................................... 10 Evangelical Christianity and the Family ....................................................................... 12 Evangelical Christianity and Conservatism .................................................................. 13 The Conservative Party and Evangelical Christianity .................................................. 14 What Does Harper Believe in? ..................................................................................... 15 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 20 Chapter 2: Blurring the Lines: The Influence of Religion in Politics in Stephen Harper’s Canada - 2006–2015 ....................................................................................... 22 Evangelicalism in Canada ............................................................................................. 23 Effects of Religion and Immigration in Canada ........................................................... 25 Decline of Religiosity for Christians in Canada ........................................................... 29 Religion and Party Politics: The Conservative Party and Stephen Harper ................... 31 The History of the Conservative Party of Canada ........................................................ 31 Western Voting Intentions ............................................................................................ 35 Voting Intentions in Ontario ......................................................................................... 37 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 41 iv Chapter 3: The Global Culture Wars: Canada, The Muskoka Initiative and Reproductive Justice ....................................................................................................... 44 Shifting Canadian Values ............................................................................................. 46 The Global Culture Wars .............................................................................................. 48 Shift of the Centre of Christianity ................................................................................. 51 The Muskoka Initiative: Canada’s Leadership Role in Maternal, Newborn and Child Health ............................................................................................................................ 53 The Muskoka Initiative and the Global Culture Wars .................................................. 53 Why Is This Problematic? ............................................................................................. 57 Canada, an International Leader in Maternal Health? .................................................. 64 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 67 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 69 Appendices ....................................................................................................................... 73 Appendix A: Allocation of funds by Canada per recipient country for the Muskoka- MNCH Initiative Mandate Countries (alphabetical, from Figure 1) ............................ 73 Appendix B: Muskoka-MNCH Top 5 recipient countries and regional breakdown .... 74 Appendix C: The Domestic Opinion on Abortion ........................................................ 75 Appendix D: (Figure 8): The Legality of Abortion in Africa, 2015 ............................. 81 Appendix E: Legality status of Abortion in Sub-Saharan Muskoka-MNCH mandate countries ........................................................................................................................ 82 Works Cited ..................................................................................................................... 84 v List of Tables Table 1 Western Region: Voting Intentions for All Westerners (All) and Evangelicals (Ev.), 1996–2008, Percentages ....................................................................................... 36 Table 2 Top Five Responses to the Question, “Which one of the following issues mattered most in decide which party’s candidate you voted for today (January 23, 2006 General Election)?” For the general population (All) and for Evangelicals (Ev.) by region, percentages ............................................................................................................ 40 Table 3 Human Life Should Be Legally Protected. 2002–2006 ..............................................