Mining Metals, Mining Minds: An Exploration of Georgius Agricola’s Natural Philosophy in De re metallica (1556) By Hillary Taylor Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Vanderbilt University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in History January 31, 2021 Nashville, Tennessee Approved: William Caferro, Ph.D. Lauren R. Clay, Ph.D. Laura Stark, Ph.D. Elsa Filosa, Ph.D. Francesca Trivellato, Ph.D. For my parents, Jim and Lisa ii Acknowledgements I have benefitted from the generosity of many individuals in my odyssey to complete this dissertation. My sincerest thanks go to Professor William Caferro who showed me how to call up documents at the Archivio di Stato in Florence, taught me Italian paleography, read each chapter, and provided thoughtful feedback. It has been a blessing working closely with a scholar who is as great as he is at doing history. I have certainly learned by his example, watching as he spends his own time reading, translating, writing, and editing. I have attempted to emulate his productivity, and I know that I would not have finished the ultimate academic enterprise without his guidance. Professor Caferro pruned my prose without bruising my ego, too badly. I must also extend my warmest thanks to the other members of my committee, Professor Lauren Clay, Professor Laura Stark, Professor Elsa Filosa, and Professor Francesca Trivellato. I am also grateful to Professor Monique O’Connell, my undergraduate advisor at Wake Forest University. Monique was the first to introduce me to the historiographical complexities of Italian history and intellectual thought. Although a decade has passed since I graduated from Wake, I have still benefitted from her mentorship. We have had long discussions about not only history, but also the profession. From her I learned how to arrange my tasks in daily, weekly, monthly, and yearly calendars. My heartfelt thanks also go to my family, who insisted that I make room on the schedule for fun. Thanks to my sisters, Paige and Robyn, for travelling to Italy with me. I know that I would not have located the Venetian archive without their help. My hope is that my sisters will read this dissertation and finally be able to articulate what I do. I also need to thank my in-laws, Junyuan and Junfang. Thank you for making me tea and keeping me cozy while I wrote the fourth chapter. Thank you as well to my darling husband, Chi, who has been a constant source of support. I would not have finished the project without him. Thank you, Chi, for your insight, distractions, and companionship. Lastly, I must thank my parents, Jim and Lisa, for sparking and nurturing my curiosity. I am grateful for all that they have done for me, and I dedicate the dissertation to them. iii Table of Contents Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ iii List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ vi Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1: All about Agricola: A Biographical Sketch ................................................................ 23 Chapter 2: Reevaluating, Reassessing, and Reconsidering Humanism: An Exploration of Agricola’s Humanist Proclivities .................................................................................................. 40 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMANISM ............................................................................................... 41 HUMANISM’S EFFECTS ON NATURAL PHILOSOPHY ................................................................................ 44 THE DEVOTION TO ARISTOTLE .......................................................................................................... 47 THE ALLUSIONS TO ANTIQUITY ......................................................................................................... 51 THE EMPHASIS ON GREEK ................................................................................................................ 57 THE PRECISION OF TERMINOLOGY ..................................................................................................... 59 THE INSTRUCTION OF MORALITY ....................................................................................................... 60 THE LACK OF DIALOGUE .................................................................................................................. 62 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................. 67 Chapter 3: Alloys, Alchemy, and Agricola: An Examination of Agricola’s Quest to Make Metallurgy Less Secretive ............................................................................................................. 70 TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION AND CRAFT SECRECY ............................................................................. 71 ARISTOTLE, MAGNUS, AND PARACELSUS: AGRICOLA’S INTELLECTUAL INHERITANCE ................................... 76 MINING, COINING, AND SMELTING: AGRICOLA’S HISTORICAL MOMENT .................................................... 82 AGRICOLA’S DESCRIPTIONS OF SMELTING AND ASSAYING ...................................................................... 86 MEN, SECRECY, AND PROTECTION: AGRICOLA’S HIERARCHY OF KNOWLEDGE ............................................ 93 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................... 103 Chapter 4: Power, Providence, and Prosperity: An Analysis of Agricola’s Religious Convictions ................................................................................................................................. 105 RECONCILING MINING’S DESTRUCTION AND GOD’S CREATION .............................................................. 108 OPPOSING SCHOLASTIC THEOLOGIANS AND HUMANIST INTELLECTUALS .................................................. 115 APPLYING AQUINAS’ IDEAS AND AUGUSTINE’S BELIEFS ....................................................................... 118 iv DESCRIBING GOD’S MIRACLES AND NATURE’S SIGNS .......................................................................... 123 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................... 126 Chapter 5: Readers, Reactions, and Rehabilitations: A Study of How Agricola Tailored His Text to His Audience ........................................................................................................................... 129 THE SIMILAR PURSUITS OF FARMERS AND MINERS .............................................................................. 135 THE SINGULAR IMPORTANCE OF METALS .......................................................................................... 138 THE DELIBERATE REFERENCE TO HORACE ......................................................................................... 141 THE LAUDED SKILLSET OF MINERS .................................................................................................. 143 THE HIERARCHICAL ORGANIZATION OF THE MINE ............................................................................... 147 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................... 153 Chapter 6: Artisans, Aristotle, and Accuracy: An Evaluation of Agricola’s Relationship with the Miners ......................................................................................................................................... 155 ARTISANS AS THEORETICAL CONTRIBUTORS ...................................................................................... 156 ARTISANS AS MANUAL LABORERS ................................................................................................... 157 MINERS AS PRECISE ARTISANS ........................................................................................................ 160 MINERS AS EXPERIENCED INVENTORS ............................................................................................... 163 MINERS AS TRADING-ZONE PARTICIPANTS ........................................................................................ 173 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................... 187 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 189 References ................................................................................................................................... 193 v List of Figures Figure Page 3.1 .................................................................................................................................................. 95 3.2 .................................................................................................................................................. 97 3.3 .................................................................................................................................................