CHAPTER 1 MACEDONIAN STUDIES1 M. B. Hatzopoulos Macedonia’s independence as a sovereign state ended after its last king’s defeat at the battle of Pydna in 168 bc. A republican Macedonia retained a formal autonomy until 148 or 146 bc as a Roman protectorate. From then on the permanent presence of a Roman governor reduced the former kingdom to a Roman province. Within that province, the survival of a distinct Macedonian entity with mainly festive attributions, the Macedo- nian koinon or ethnos, preserved a sense of a Macedonian identity at least until the beginning of the fourth century ad, from which period dates the last attestation of a person “ethnically” identifijied as “Macedonian.”2 Later on, successive reforms, which carved up the province or extended its appellation into new regions, creating new administrative units, such as Macedonia Prima, Macedonia Secunda or Macedonia Salutaris, blurred the contours of this geographical term. By the beginning of the ninth century the “theme”—the new name of the administrative units which replaced the old provinces from the seventh century onwards—of Mace- donia with its capital at Adrianople consisted not of Macedonian but of Thracian territories. During the Byzantine period Macedonia proper cor- responded to the “themes” of Thessaloniki and Strymon. The Ottoman administration ignored the name of Macedonia. It was only revived dur- ing the Renaissance, when western scholars rediscovered the ancient Greek geographical terminology, which they used in a rather loose way, since they could not easily match it with the geographic realities of their time. The memory of the ancient Macedonian kingdom had nevertheless survived among the Greek literate public thanks to the popularity of the successive versions of the Alexander Romance, while in the Greek folklore 1 This chapter is not meant as a bibliographical guide to Macedonian studies. Such a guide has been compiled by the present author and Dimitra Andrianou [forthcoming 2011] for Oxford Bibliographies Online (OBO) and will be available at http://www.oxfordbibliog raphiesonline.com. 2 Ph. Petsas, M. B. Hatzopoulos, et al., Les inscriptions du sanctuaire de la Mère des Dieux autochtone à Leukopetra (Macédoine), (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ) 28 (Athens, 2000), 173, no. 116. 36 m. b. hatzopoulos king Alexander and Gorgona, his mermaid sister, had acquired the status of Panhellenic heroes. It is only with the revival of classical studies that an interest in the antiq- uities of Macedonia began to emerge. Starting from Kyriacus of Ancona, Western travellers made their way through Macedonia recording the ves- tiges of its past. They were naturalists like Pierre Belon (mid sixteenth century), missionaries like P. Braconnier (fijirst decade of the eighteenth century), physicians like Paul Lucas (fijirst decade of the eighteenth cen- tury), scholars, like Jean-Baptiste Gaspar d’Ansse de Villoison (late eigh- teenth century) or diplomats like the count Choiseul-Goufffijier and F. C. L. Pouqueville (beginning of the nineteenth century). Diplomats, who spent years in the same post, had better opportunities to work methodically. Such was the case of J. B. Germain (mid eighteenth century) who, as a French consular agent at Salonica, made a systematic record of the antiq- uities of that city.3 However, the most prominent specimens of Macedo- nian antiquarian-diplomats were unquestionably the French Esprit-Marie Cousinéry (end of the 18th-beginning of the nineteenth century) and the British William Martin Leake, who have left us the two-volume Voyage dans la Macédoine (1831) and the four-volume Travels in Northern Greece (1835) respectively.4 With the liberation of Greece from the Turks a new era began, with the foundation of the Archaeological Society and of a series of foreign schools of Archaeology in Athens, starting with the Ecole Française d’Athènes (1846). The fijirst professional archaeologists to explore Macedonia were two of its students: Alfred Delacoulonche and Léon Heuzey. The fruit of their joint travels were Le berceau de la puissance macédonienne des bords de l’Haliacmon à ceux de l’Axius (Paris, 1858) and Le mont Olympe et l’Acarnanie (Paris, 1860) respectively. The consummation of Heuzey’s work in Macedonia was the offfijicial archaeological expedition which he undertook in 1861 with the support of the emperor Napoleon III, during 3 On the rediscovery of Macedonia, see M. B. Hatzopoulos, in R. Ginouvès and M. B. Hatzopoulos, eds., Macedonia from Philip II to the Roman Conquest (Princeton, 1993), pp. 14–15. For some early travellers in Macedonia, see M. B. Hatzopoulos, “Les épigraphis- tes français en Macédoine,” in Actes du colloque international du Centenaire de l’Année Épi- graphique (Paris, 1990), pp. 205–221. 4 On modern scholarship about ancient Macedonia, see M. B. Hatzopoulos, “A Century and a Lustrum of Macedonian Studies,” The Ancient World 4 (1981), 91–108; E. N. Borza, “The History and Archaeology of Macedonia: Retrospect and Prospect,” in Berryl Barr- Sharrar and E. N. Borza, Macedonia and Greece in Late Classical and Early Hellenistic Times (Washington D.C., 1982), pp. 17–30..