Affective Disposition Theory in Suspense: Elucidating the Roles of Morality and Character Liking in Creating Suspenseful Affect Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Sarah Brookes, M.A. Graduate Program in Communication The Ohio State University 2013 Dissertation Committee: Emily Moyer-Gusé, Advisor David R. Ewoldsen Silvia Knobloch-Westerwick Daniel G. McDonald Copyright by Sarah Brookes 2013 Abstract According to affective disposition theory, our enjoyment of narratives is a function of our feelings toward characters and perceived justness of the outcomes they encounter. Research on suspense has demonstrated that liking characters leads to greater suspense, and that morally just outcomes are associated with greater enjoyment of the narrative. However, additional factors may be relevant in this context. More specifically, perceived threat may act as a complement to character liking, and timing of narrative events may alter the impact of morality. Two studies were conducted in an effort to both complement and challenge affective disposition theory. Study 1 revealed that greater character liking, self-threat, and character-threat are all associated with more suspense and, through excitation transfer, more enjoyment. The first study also found threat to be positively associated with identification, liking, and transportation. Study 2 demonstrated that valence of a midpoint narrative outcome does not necessarily matter for suspense, in that a protagonist’s extreme success and extreme failure in the middle of the narrative were associated with roughly the same amount of suspense. Implications for affective disposition theory are discussed. ii Acknowledgements Thanks are due to my entire committee for helping shape and focus my dissertation. In particular, I would like to thank my advisor, Emily Moyer-Gusé, for her feedback on revisions, and David Ewoldsen, for the original idea that inspired this dissertation. Finally, I would like to thank Brian Fatah Steele for writing such a compelling short story to be used in my research. iii Vita 2004…………………………………………East Liverpool High School 2007………………………………………....B.A. Media Studies, Mount Union College 2010………………………………………....M.A. Communication, The Ohio State University 2008 to present…………………………..….Graduate Teaching/Research Associate, School of Communication, The Ohio State University Publications Moyer-Gusé, E., Mahood, C., & Brookes, S. (2011). Entertainment-education in the context of humor: Effects on safe-sex Intentions and risk perceptions. Health Communication, 26, 765–774. Fields of Study Major Field: Communication iv Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgment ............................................................................................................... iii Vita ..................................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables .................................................................................................................... vii List of Figures .................................................................................................................. viii Chapter 1: Literature Review ...............................................................................................1 Chapter 2: Study 1 .............................................................................................................13 Method ...........................................................................................................................23 Results ...........................................................................................................................35 Discussion .....................................................................................................................43 Chapter 3: Study 2 .............................................................................................................59 Method ...........................................................................................................................65 Results ...........................................................................................................................69 Discussion .....................................................................................................................77 Chapter 4: General Discussion...........................................................................................89 References ..........................................................................................................................96 Appendix A: Study 1 Tables and Figures ........................................................................105 Appendix B: Study 2 Tables and Figures ........................................................................118 v Appendix C: Study 1 Measures .......................................................................................121 Appendix D: Study 2 Measures .......................................................................................127 vi List of Tables Table A.1. Descriptive Statistics .....................................................................................105 Table A.2. Correlation Matrix ........................................................................................106 Table A.3. OLS Regression Analysis of Suspense as a Function of Character Liking ..107 Table A.4. OLS Regression Analysis of Suspense as a Function of Perceived Self-Threat ..........................................................................................................................................108 Table A.5. OLS Regression Analysis of Suspense as a Function of Perceived Character- Threat ...............................................................................................................................109 Table A.6. OLS Regression Analysis of Suspense as a Function of Character Liking, Perceived Self-Threat, and Perceived Character-Threat ..................................................110 Table A.7. OLS Regression Analysis of Identification, Liking, and Transportation as a Function of Perceived Self-Threat ...................................................................................112 Table A.8. OLS Regression Analysis of Identification, Liking, and Transportation as a Function of Perceived Character-Threat ..........................................................................113 Table B.1. OLS Regression Analysis of Suspense as a Function of Protagonist Success ..........................................................................................................................................118 vii List of Figures Figure A.1. Indirect relationship between character liking and enjoyment ....................114 Figure A.2. Indirect relationship between self-threat and enjoyment ............................114 Figure A.3. Indirect relationship between character-threat and enjoyment ...................115 Figure A.4. Interaction between measured character liking and perceived self-threat ...115 Figure A.5. Distribution of perceived self-threat ............................................................116 Figure A.5. Distribution of perceived character-threat ...................................................116 Figure B.1. Visual representation of the quadratic regression between perceived protagonist success and suspense.....................................................................................119 Figure B.2. Visual representation of the quadratic regression between perceived protagonist success and suspense at the stop-point..........................................................120 viii Chapter 1: Literature Review Though suspense has been conceptualized differently over the years, most theorists have agreed that character liking is an essential component of the suspense experience (e.g., Zillmann, 1996). Our concern for liked characters that seem to be in peril leads us to the state of anxiety known as suspense. Hope and fear are experienced because, though audience members care for protagonists and wish them only positive outcomes, they worry that they will meet negative ends (Ortony, Clore, & Collins, 1988). Affective disposition theory (ADT) is often cited as the main explanation for this emotional experience. As applied to suspense, ADT indicates that media users want positive outcomes for protagonists and negative outcomes for antagonists, and that our enjoyment of suspense-evoking narratives is a direct result of the characters achieving these desired outcomes. Research on suspense has seemed to support these notions. More suspense is experienced when the main characters are liked than when they are disliked (Knobloch-Westerwick & Keplinger, 2006; Vorderer, Knobloch, & Schramm, 2001), and just endings for liked characters do indeed lead to greater enjoyment of suspense-evoking narratives (Madrigal, Bee, Chen, & LaBarge, 2011). Though originally applied to humor (Zillmann & Cantor, 1972), ADT has since been expanded to a number of different genres, including drama and suspense. Raney (2006) has offered six principles that are common across all incarnations of ADT, 1 regardless of genre. These disposition-based theories: 1) focus on enjoyment of media