Nationalism as opposition in Russia - a historical comparison Erika Hellsing Rydergård Institutionen för slaviska och baltiska språk, finska, nederländska och tyska Examensarbete 15 hp Ryska Ryska, kandidatkurs (30 hp) Vårterminen 2017 Examinator: English title: The nationalist opposition in Russia – an historical comparison Nationalism as opposition in Russia - a historical comparison Erika Hellsing Rydergård Abstract During the 19th century, nationalism was generally connected to ideas of democratisation and the contestation of power and status quo. In Russia, there was an ongoing struggle between Official Nationalism, aimed at preserving the empire, and cultural nationalism. This essay is an inquiry into the differences and similarities between how the 19th century Slavophiles and contemporary Russian national democrats, exemplified by Aleksej Naval’nyj, view the Russian nation. The focus is on how the Russian nation is defined, how the two nationalist visions relate to competing views of the Russian nation, and how the idea of a Russian nation is used as part of a vision for social and political change. The essay finds that although “the Other” against which the Russian nation is defined differs in the two historical cases, the use of nationalism to frame an opposition against the regime and to advocate for social and political change is persistent across time. However, because of its excluding tendencies, in the cases studied here cultural nationalism is found to be wanting as a basis on which to build a democratic form of government. Keywords Russia, Nationalism, Slavophilism, Aleksej Naval’nyj Contents Abstract ........................................................................................... 0 Keywords .............................................................................................. 0 Introduction ..................................................................................... 2 Overview of Previous Research ........................................................ 3 Research Question and Theoretical framework ................................ 4 Research question and limitations ................................................................ 4 The role of the nation in social and political change ......................................... 5 Ideas of a Russian nation ............................................................................ 7 Theoretical approach and method .................................................. 10 The early Slavophiles – “spiritual unity” ........................................ 11 The Russian nation according to the Slavophiles ........................................... 12 Opposition to Official Nationalism ............................................................... 13 Nationalism as a basis for social and political change .................................... 14 Aleksej Naval’nyj – “what people are worried about” .................... 15 The Russian nation according to Naval’nyj ................................................... 16 Opposition to the official narrative .............................................................. 19 Nationalism as a basis for social and political change .................................... 21 An inconsistent political project .................................................................. 24 Discussion – old and new in Russian cultural nationalism .............. 26 A revived cultural nationalism .................................................................... 27 Nationalism as opposition to power ............................................................. 28 Nationalism and social progress ................................................................. 29 Bibliography .................................................................................. 31 1 [Р]усские слишком богато и многосторонне одарены, чтоб скоро приискать себе приличную форму. The Russians are too rich and muLtifaceted to be abLe to find a fitting form for themseLves. Fyodor Dostoyevsky “The GambLer” Introduction Although Dostoevsky’s nationalism differs from early Slavophilism, the categorical statement by the main character in his short novel “The Gambler”, Aleksej Ivanovich, inadvertently points to one of the dilemmas of nationalism. Are we not all too rich and multifaceted to be divided along singular ethnic or cultural lines? Who are these Russians, Swedes, or Americans? If there is no form according to which one can assess who is a Russian and who is not, then whom is the Russian opposition claiming to represent? With the decline and end of great European empires throughout the 19th and 20th centuries came a new idea of political legitimacy based on nations (largely defined culturally and ethnically). This change has brought advances in popular political participation, but also conflicts over the boundaries of nations and how to define the people. In the Russian empire, the Soviet Union and the contemporary Russian Federation, the conflict between popular representation, self-determination for ethnic and cultural groups and inclusion of different groups living within the confines of the state has been especially prominent. It is therefore important to understand how Russian nationalism interacts with the democratic opposition to an increasingly authoritarian regime and how contemporary Russian nationalism compares to its historical antecedents. Comparing and contrasting instances of Russian nationalist rhetoric can provide insights not only into why certain discursive practices have persisted until today, but also into the more general problems that arise when constructing nationalism as a basis for political and social progress. 2 Overview of Previous Research The different strands of Russian nationalism have received significant scholarly interest throughout the 20th and 21st century. For the purposes of this essay, both works on the Slavophiles and on contemporary Russian nationalism have been especially helpful. There is extensive research on the Slavophiles both from an autobiographical and from a theoretical viewpoint. Christoff’s thorough exposé in four volumes over the “older” Slavophiles, Aleksej Khomyakov (Christoff, 1961) and Ivan Kireevskij (Christoff, 1972), and the followers, Konstantin Aksakov (Christoff, 1982) and Jurij Samarin (Christoff, 1991), give an in depth description of both the ideas and lives of these four 19th century thinkers, and some overview over the intellectual climate at the time. Andrzej Walicki (1989) also provides an interesting discussion of the relationship between the Slavophiles (primarily Khomyakov, Kireevskij, and Aksakov) and the Westernizers originally published in Poland, while Riasanovsky’s earlier work (1952) examines the connections between Slavophilism and European Romanticism, as well as the Slavophiles’ view of the West and of Russia’s role in history. In addition, the Slavophile agenda for social transformation through cultural nationalism has also been examined by Rabow-Edling (2006). She argues that the cultural nationalism of the Slavophiles does not constitute a backward and introverted worldview but an attempt at social change through spiritual and social bonds. Several attempts have also been made to trace the history of Russian nationalisms broadly up until today, including its relation to Official Nationalism (Torbakov, 2015) and to the nationalism of other former Soviet republics (Kolsto, 2000). For the purpose of this essay, recent research on the Russian national democrats in the 21st century (Kolsto, 2014) (Kolsto, 2016) (Laruelle, 2017) is relevant, as well as studies that look specifically at the role of nationalism in Aleksej Naval’nyj’s political project (Laruelle, 2014a) (Moen-Larsen, 2014). There is some consensus that Russian nationalism has become an increasingly important factor after the fall of the Soviet Union both at the level of the public and in official rhetoric. However, there are also diverging views of how to describe the different visions of a Russian nation envisaged by different actors. 3 Research Question and Theoretical framework Research question and limitations In this essay, I will explore how cultural nationalism has been used to build a vision of the Russian nation and Russia’s place in the world at two points in time. The early Slavophiles are an informative and influential example of a 19th century Russian brand of the Romanticism that to a significant extent inspired cultural and ethnic nationalist movements in Europe. Their ideas of a Russian nation that is based in Orthodoxy and has a special place in the world also continue to have influence today. Currently, cultural and ethnic nationalism is seeing a revival in Europe. It is often coupled with migrantophobia and xenophobia and is increasingly entering the political mainstream. In Russia, nationalism is also part of the political program of some parts of the opposition to the current political regime, and it ranges from a far right ideology to a more moderate “liberal” nationalism. Some scholars, as well as the actors themselves and their debating opponents in the Russian blogosphere, have termed the new liberal nationalists “national democrats” natsdem (Kolsto, 2014) (Laruelle, 2017) (Moen-Larsen, 2014). While the original Slavophile thinkers are limited in number and represent a nationalism which has been thoroughly explored and classified, current national democrats exist in a number of different guises with different convictions. To limit the inquiry, I will focus the second half