The Social Costs of War: Investigating the Relationship between Warfare and Intragroup Violence during the Mississippian Period of the Central Illinois Valley by Mallorie Ann Hatch A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Approved July 2015 by the Graduate Supervisory Committee: Jane Buikstra, Chair Katherine Spielmann Christopher Carr George Milner ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY August 2015 ABSTRACT War exacts a great social cost, not only upon its direct participants, but also upon the lives of the friends, family, and community of those who experience it. This cost is particularly evident in the increased frequencies of aggressive behaviors, including homicide, assault, and domestic violence, enacted by Western military veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Similarly, among contemporary non-Westernized peoples, a cross-cultural conducted by Ember and Ember (1994) found a relationship between war and various forms of intragroup violence, including domestic violence, assaults, homicides, and violent sports. It is unknown, however, if this positive association between warfare and intragroup violence extends longitudinally for prehistoric populations uninfluenced by modern states. To test Ember and Ember’s (1994) results in an archaeological culture, this study examines whether or not an association between war and intragroup violence was present during the Mississippian Period (ca. AD 1000-1450) of the Central Illinois Valley (CIV). The Mississippian Period of the CIV represents an ideal context for examining war and violence questions, as considerable evidence of war and violence has been amassed from archaeological and bioarchaeological analyses. High rates of skeletal trauma, fortification construction, and the placement of habitations sites in defendable areas indicate war was of particular concern during this period. Yet, little is known regarding the diachronic and synchronic variation in violence in this region. In this research, skeletal remains representing 776 individuals from five CIV sites (Dickson Mounds, Larson, Berry, Crable, and Emmons) were analyzed for violence- related skeletal trauma, biodistance, and mortuary data. From the aggregation of these i data, two models of intergroup violence and two models of intragroup violence were explored. The intergroup models examined were: 1) warfare victims from the local community and 2) warfare captives. The intragroup models assessed include: 1) domestic violence and 2) male-male fights. Results support the hypothesis that as intergroup violence increased during the Mississippian Period in the CIV, intragroup violence increased concomitantly. While warfare and intragroup violence occurred in low frequencies early in the Mississippian Period, after AD 1200, both intragroup and intergroup violence were likely endemic. ii DEDICATION To Jake iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I owe tremendous gratitude to the Illinois State Museum for providing access to the Dickson Mounds, Larson, Crable, Emmons, and Berry skeletal collections. Dawn Cobb has been a wonderful friend, host, and research partner. She allowed me to take over her lab (and sometimes her home) while conducting research in Springfield. Terry and Claire Martin helped with collections access and were the best Springfield social ambassadors. I miss our Friday jazz nights. Alan Harn deserves a particular debt of gratitude for sharing his unpublished data and his knowledge of the archaeology of the Central Illinois Valley. Bonnie Styles, Jeffrey Saunders, Deanne Watt, Leslie Cline, and Becky Dyer also helped facilitate my research at the museum. Although the museum is such an irreplaceable resource, as of this writing, it is facing closure by the governor of Illinois, Bruce Rauner. There is no greater loss for the natural and cultural history of the state, as resources like the museum are too precious to lose. I truly appreciate the guidance, support, and hard work of my chair, Jane Buikstra, and committee members: Katherine Spielmann, Christopher Carr, and George Milner. Each of them has pushed me to improve my scholarship and have helped develop the ideas in this dissertation. Special thanks goes to Lynne Goldstein for supplying the idea to conduct violence research on skeletal collections from the Central Illinois Valley. Thanks to Ashley Evans and Garrett Fox for helping with the figures in this dissertation. I also have had so many wonderful friends and colleagues during my stay at Arizona State University. There are too many to thank by name, but I will always appreciate our time at ASU together. iv My family deserves the greatest amount of thanks and appreciation. Jake, thank you for your patience and support. I know it has not always been easy, but I am glad we accomplished this together. My mother, Elena, and my father, Jack, have always supported me in pursuing my education. I am lucky to be their daughter. My Grandpa Jack helped spawn my early interest in anthropology and archaeology by supplying me with his copies of National Geographic and Smithsonian Magazines. To Heather Theobald, I definitely needed our chat breaks. You have kept me sane. This research was made possible by a dissertation writing fellowship from the Henry Frank Guggenheim Foundation and Dissertation Fieldwork Grant #8495 from the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research. Partial funding was also obtained through research awards from the School of Human Evolution and Social Change and the Graduate and Professional Student Association at Arizona State University. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………………….. viii LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………. xiii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………….. 1 Definitions……………………………………………………………….……... 3 A Brief History of the Anthropology of War in Small-Scale Societies………... 5 The Post-WWII Period……………………………………………………….. 10 Dissertation Organization…………………………………………………….. 16 2 MISSISSIPPIAN WARFARE….………………………………………………. 19 Description of Mississippian………………………………………………….. 19 Patterns of Mississippian War………………………………………………... 30 The Causes of Mississippian War…………………………………………….. 32 Evidence for Mississippian War.….………………………………………….. 35 3 THE CENTRAL ILLINOIS VALLEY………………………………………… 51 Mississippians in the Central Illinois Valley…………………………………. 51 Temporal Systematics………………………………………………………… 56 Central Illinois Valley Culture History……………………………………….. 59 Warfare in the Central Illinois Valley………………………………………… 68 Sites with Skeletal Remains Studied in this Analysis………..……………….. 72 4 METHODS……………………………………………………………………... 81 Methods Background…………………………………………………………. 81 vi CHAPTER Page Analytical Methods………………………………………………………….. 125 5 MODELS AND TEST EXPECTATIONS……………………………………. 131 Intergroup Models…………………………………………………………… 131 Intragroup Models…………………………………………………………… 135 6 RESULTS……………………………………………………………………... 140 Demography of the CIV Sample…………………………………………….. 140 Trauma Analysis…………………………………………………………….. 143 Biodistance Analysis………………………………………………………… 151 Mortuary Analysis…………………………………………………………... 171 7 DISCUSSION………………………….…………………………………..….. 184 Model Exploration and Research Question Evaluation……………………... 184 Contextualization with Previous CIV Warfare Research…………………… 192 Alternative Explanations for Data Patterns………………………….…….… 197 8 CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………... 207 Future Directions……………………………………………………………. 208 REFERENCES CITED………………………………………………………………... 215 APPENDIX A TRAUMA WITHIN-SITE SUMMARIES……………………………………. 299 B ASSOCIATED ARTIFACT ANALYSIS……………………………………... 310 vii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 2.1. Mississippian Skeletal Trauma Frequencies for Sites in Alabama, Illinois, and Tennessee…...……………..………………………….………………………...…. 39 3.1. Michigan and Wisconsin CIV Mississippian Radiocarbon Dates…………............. 58 3.2. Sample Sizes by Site and Phase…………………………...……………………….. 73 4.1. Forms of Interpersonal Violence and Possible Trauma Correlates...……................ 97 4.2. Cut Mark Signatures that Distinguish Conflict from Secondary Burial (modified from Olsen and Shipman 1994:380)….…………........…………………………… 99 5.1. Intergroup and Intragroup Models with Expected Variable Patterns…...................132 6.1. Sample Sizes by Site……………………………………………………...………..141 6.2. Sex Demographics…………………………………………………...………….....142 6.3. Age-at-Death Demographics…………………………………………...………… 143 6.4. Frequencies of Trauma Presence by Site………………………...……………….. 144 6.5. Frequencies of Trauma Types by Site for Sample A – Total Sample……...……...145 6.6. Frequencies of Trauma Types by Site for Sample B – Individuals with at Least 25% of the Skull Present…………..………………..………………………..………… 145 6.7. Trauma Frequencies by Sex…………………………………..…………………... 146 6.8. Pearson’s Chi-Square Test of Trauma by Sex (males and females only)…...……. 146 6.9. Trauma Frequencies by Type and Sex for Sample A - Total Sample……...……...147 6.10. CIV Trauma Frequencies by Age-at-Death…………………………………...… 148 6.11. CIV Trauma Type Frequencies by Age-at-Death – Sample A………………..… 148 6.12. Larson Phase Trauma Frequencies……………………………………………… 150 viii Table Page 6.13. Larson Phase Trauma Type Frequencies…………...………………………….... 151 6.14. Dental Metrics Interobserver Error Using the Semna South Nubian Collection…153 6.15. Dental Cervical Metrics Intraobserver Error………….……..…………....…….. 154 6.16. Right and Left Dental Cervical Measurement Correlations…...…...…………… 156 6.17. Principal Components Percent of Variance Explained…………………………...158 6.18. Principal Component Factor Scores of 95%