MERCY ANGELS: THE JOINT CHURCH AID AND THE HUMANITARIAN RESPONSE IN BIAFRA, 1967-1970 BY ARUA OKO OMAKA, BA, MA A Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Ph.D. Thesis – A. Omaka; McMaster University – History McMaster University DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (2014), Hamilton, Ontario (History) TITLE: Mercy Angels: The Joint Church Aid and the Humanitarian Response in Biafra, 1967-1970 AUTHOR: Arua Oko Omaka, BA (University of Nigeria), MA (University of Nigeria) SUPERVISOR: Professor Bonny Ibhawoh NUMBER OF PAGES: xi, 271 ii Ph.D. Thesis – A. Omaka; McMaster University – History ILLUSTRATIONS Figures 1. AJEEBR`s sponsored advertisement ..................................................................122 2. ACKBA`s sponsored advertisement ...................................................................125 3. Malnourished Biafran baby .................................................................................217 Tables 1. WCC`s sickbays and refugee camp medical support returns, November 30, 1969 .....................................................................................................................171 2. Average monthly deliveries to Uli from September 1968 to January 1970.........197 Map 1. Proposed relief delivery routes ............................................................................208 iii Ph.D. Thesis – A. Omaka; McMaster University – History ABSTRACT International humanitarian organizations played a prominent role in the Nigeria- Biafra War, but scholars have paid little or no attention to the humanitarian crisis in the war and the global humanitarian intervention that followed it. This thesis aims to fill a gap in the historiography of international humanitarian aid in the Nigeria-Biafra War by focusing on the Joint Church Aid (JCA), a consortium of Catholic and Protestant Churches that provided relief aid for the starving civilians in Biafra. This study of the JCA is broken down into three parts: the humanitarian impulse in the Nigeria-Biafra conflict, the formation of the JCA and its relief organization, and the challenges of relief operation in Biafra. The research provides a window into understanding the complex nature of international humanitarian aid in political conflicts. This dissertation argues that the JCA’s humanitarian operation, though relatively successful, had unintended consequences. While the JCA aimed to provide relief for the starving Biafran population, it was interpreted by the Nigerian government as political support for a “rebellion.” Convinced that the humanitarian organizations engaged in arms dealings with the Biafran government, the Nigerian government intensified military counter-action against the relief operation. The Nigerian government refused to separate international humanitarian aid from the political objectives of the war hence starvation came to be seen as a legitimate instrument of warfare. On the Biafran side, however, there was an effort to separate international humanitarian aid from the politics and hostilities of the war. Consequently, humanitarianism became a deeply contested issue that brought the humanitarian agencies into direct conflict with the Nigerian government. This study contributes to the iv Ph.D. Thesis – A. Omaka; McMaster University – History scholarship on international humanitarianism and the internationalization of armed conflicts in postcolonial Africa. v Ph.D. Thesis – A. Omaka; McMaster University – History ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Writing a thesis is like a journey across the Sahara Desert, which requires the service of a guide for a successful passage. My supervisor, Professor Ibhawoh guided me well and provided the needed encouragement and support to complete this study. He patiently read through my chapter drafts and made critical comments that immensely helped me. I owe him a debt of gratitude. I am also very thankful to Professor Horn for offering very useful suggestions that helped me along the way. Apart from his prompt response to my submissions, he also made time to discuss some issues when I needed him. I owe a debt of gratitude to Professor Streeter whose contributions in our meetings greatly helped in actualising this project. Professor Heathorn was very kind to me. His support as a graduate chair contributed to the successful completion of this study. My thanks go to Professor Weaver, who has been like a father to me. I would like to acknowledge the support of Dr Rick Fee of the Presbyterian Church Canada, who not only provided me with relevant documents on the war but also organized oral interviews with some Canadians who served as humanitarian workers in the Nigeria-Biafra War. I am very thankful to Ron McGraw whose firsthand accounts of the humanitarian action in Biafra have strengthened this study. I want to thank Wendy and Debbie for their assistance in the office. There were some friends who gave me moral support. I recognize the support of Dr I. F. A. Uzoechi, Luke Agada, Chima Osakwe, Dr Paul Ugor, Derek Watson, Boateng Ohanebe, Jennifer Tunicliff, Kevin Anderson, Ijeoma Nwamuo, Nation Onyia, Henry vi Ph.D. Thesis – A. Omaka; McMaster University – History Onwuka, Chuks Maddy, John B. A. Okello, Pastor and Mrs Emeka Nelson, and Rev and Pastor Edosa for their prayers. I want to express my gratitude to my wife and children whose understanding and encouragement enabled me to complete this study. My wife, Chinyere saw reasons why I should temporarily leave the family for the doctoral studies while she took good care of our children. I must make a special mention of my daughter, Kamara (Nne-Odenki) who was only one when I left Nigeria. She missed the most needed fatherly care at the formative stage of her life. My sons, Oko (Nnannaya) and Enyinnaya always prayed for my success. Their love and spiritual support sustained me. I am also grateful to my parents, Osuu Oko and Nwanne Oko for encouraging me and supporting my family in my absence. My uncle Mr Ndukwe and my brothers also played supportive role in my absence. vii Ph.D. Thesis – A. Omaka; McMaster University – History TABLE OF CONTENTS Illustrations .........................................................................................................................iii Abstract ..............................................................................................................................iv Acknowledgments ..............................................................................................................vi List of Abbreviations ..........................................................................................................ix Chapter 1: Introduction ......................................................................................................1 Chapter 2: The War ..........................................................................................................28 Chapter 3: Humanitarian Impulse .....................................................................................93 Chapter 4: The Joint Church Aid: Formation and Relief Organization ..........................132 Chapter 5: The Relief War: Obstacles and Debates ........................................................186 Chapter 6: Conclusion .....................................................................................................245 Bibliography ....................................................................................................................259 viii Ph.D. Thesis – A. Omaka; McMaster University – History LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ACKBA American Committee to keep Biafra Alive ACT Action by Churches Together AG Action Group AJEEBR American Jewish Emergency Effort for Biafran Relief BBC British Broadcasting Corporation BCG Bacillus Calmette Guerin CCB Christian Council of Biafra CIA Central Intelligence Agency CRDA Church Relief and Development Association DDW Das Diakonische Werk EWG Executive Working Group FCO Foreign and Commonwealth Office FMG Federal Military Government ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross JCA Joint Church Aid ix Ph.D. Thesis – A. Omaka; McMaster University – History MSF Medicins Sans Frontieres NAE National Archives Enugu NAUK National Archives of the United Kingdom NCA Nordchurchaid NCNC National Council of Nigeria and Cameroun (later National Council of Nigerian Citizens) NNA Nigerian National Alliance NNDP Nigerian National Democratic Party NPC Northern People’s Congress OAU Organization of African Unity OXFAM Oxford Committee for Famine Relief PCCA Presbyterian Church of Canada Archives SMC Supreme Military Council SOS Send One Ship UN United Nations UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund UPGA United Progressive Grand Alliance x Ph.D. Thesis – A. Omaka; McMaster University – History US United States USAID United States Agency for International Development USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republic WCC World Council of Churches xi CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION At 6 a.m., May 30, 1967, the Military Governor of Eastern Nigeria, Lt. Colonel Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, made a broadcast declaring the Eastern Region with its continental shelf and territorial waters to be an independent state under the name, Republic of Biafra.1 The secession of Eastern Nigeria had its roots mainly in ethnic and regional animosities between the people of Northern Nigeria and those of Eastern Nigeria.2 The declaration of the independence of Biafra came after two military coups in January and July 1966 and the