Journal of Indonesian Economy and Business Volume 27, Number 2, 2012, 224 – 241 THE INFLUENCES OF JAVANESE CULTURE IN POWER OF MAKING DECISIONS IN INDONESIAN UNIVERSITIES: CASE STUDIES IN MM PROGRAMMES Budi Santoso Faculty of Economics and Business Gadjah Mada University ([email protected]) ABSTRACT This study aims to explore the influence of Javanese cultural values in power of the processes of making decisions in the Indonesian university settings. The case-study method is used in this study. The choice of particular universities in Yogyakarta and Surakarta to be studied is based on a number of criteria, namely, location in central Java, accredited and non-accredited institutions, similarity of programmes and the year of foundation, and ease of access by this study, to obtain one-to-one interviews. The findings show that Javanese cultural values, including loyalty to the top level of the hierarchy, obedience to superiors and the desire for conflict avoidance are power to control the decision-making processes in the universities. Furthermore, the practice of using that power is maintained because of social acceptance. However, the findings do not represent a model of the healthy institution in which autonomy and empowerment are emphasized on. Keywords: Javanese culture, founding fathers, loyalty, obedience, seniority, and case study INTRODUCTION rather tends to follow the practices from the The internal context of organizations sig- organisational environment accepted by mem- nificantly contributes on the sources and use bers involved in making decisions. Simply put, of power in decision-making processes. Based the power distribution to making decisions are on a study of the decision-making process in socially constructed by contextual values em- Canadian universities, Hardy (1990) indicated bedded in their environment. The influences of that the powerful individuals or groups in the specific values embedding the organisational decision-making processes were influenced by environment influence to the extent that the the established different traditions of the deci- distribution of power in making decisions is sion-making processes committed in the uni- negotiated among the participants involved, versities, rather than subject to the organisa- rather that referring to the established organ- tional hierarchies only. In line with that, a isational structures. study in the longitudinal case studies of UK Sagie & Aycan (2003) reveal that the use universities, Jarzabkowski (2005) reveals that of power links with the influences of the the issue of distributing power in making deci- national culture at the location of the organi- sions in organisations is not easily managed by sations. The authors indicate that the paternal- formalisation of organisational structures, but istic culture emphasising high in power dis- 2012 Santoso 225 tance and collectivism is frequently observed nesian cultural values permeating the Indone- in most of the developing countries. In line sian bureaucracy, government, and military with that study, Wang & Clegg (2002) re- (Dean, 2001; Perks & Sanderson, 2000). In vealed that Chinese managers invited less em- addition, Java is the most populated island in ployee participation in decision-making than Indonesia and the centre of the Indonesian did Australian managers. Confucian values, in national government. fact, influenced the Chinese managers in In particular, this study endeavours to an- shaping the condition of less participation swer the following research question: “how from their employees in the decision-making have power and cultural factors influenced processes. decision-making in the Indonesian universi- This study perceives that cultural prefer- ties?” Some previous studies have been re- ences have been contributing in forming the vealing the internal context of a university in uniqueness of how organizational decision- terms of the influences of decision-making makings are established and maintained. Cul- processes (Hardy, 1990; Brown, 1998; tural preferences mean that values dominating Thomas, 2000). The issues of seniority, politi- and embedding in nations have strong influ- cal behaviour, and tradition have been embed- ences in organizational making decisions. This ding in the processes of making decisions. study is in line with “high-context perspectives Furthermore, Hardy (1990) argued that the top of organizations. High-context perspectives management in each university would have believe that organizations tend to retain their uniqueness of how to make decisions, because own unique characteristics that stem from of their tradition, instead of hierarchy. cultural preferences and institutionalized prac- In line with the importance of “high per- tices (Child, 1981). Instead of applying uni- spective” of organizational practices in Asia, versalized system, Child argues that substan- the benefit of this study is to contribute an tial idea of organizational systems source from understanding of the cultural influences of cultural, religious, and political matters. In power in making decisions in Indonesia. In particular, cultural theory mentions that be- addition, this study is to provide insight that haviour and thinking within an organization power in making organizational decisions in are significantly driven by cultural values Asia can be subject to the cultural preferences dominating in the environment. Then, cultural compared with power in Western organiza- perspectives enable to distinguish management tions. In the following section, this study styles across nations and society. In particular, elaborates the Javanese culture in relation the dominating cultural values explicitly con- power and its possible impact in making deci- tribute on organization uniqueness. Briefly, sions. This study provides the rationale of us- the internal contexts embedding in the organi- ing case-study method in this investigation. At sations can provide a contextual understanding the final section, this study describes and dis- of how the decision-making processes are per- cusses the findings of this investigation in formed, in terms of the effects on the in- connection with the literature. volvement of the people. To respond with the cultural preference- LITERATURE STUDY based processes of making decisions, this Beliefs in Javanese Culture: Harmony in study aims to reveal the influence of Javanese Society cultural values as base for power of making decisions. In respect with the cultural prefer- Javanese society believes that individuals ences, this study considers that Javanese cul- play a role as a harmonious part of the family ture is a representative of the dominant Indo- group. Especially, to be Javanese means that 226 Journal of Indonesian Economy and Business May an individual should know and conform to lead to disharmony in relationships. In prac- his/her manners and place in either the family tice, the consensus required a presence of the group or society (Geertz, 1961; Mulder, 1978). person perceived as more senior than the rest Living in the Javanese society should be char- of the participants. The presence of the more acterised by ‘rukun’ (harmonious unity), senior person was perceived as the preferred which Mulder (1978) emphasises as follows: way to resolve the different opinions. “The whole of society should be charac- Furthermore, Javanese society is strongly terised by the spirit of rukun, but whereas hierarchical, with what appear to be great its behavioural expression in relation to power distances between each level within a the supernatural and to superiors is re- social structure (Dean, 2001). Authority is spectful, polite, obedient, and distant, its connected to a person and characterised by a expression in the community and among high level of centralisation of power in Indo- one’s peer should be ‘akrab’ (intimate) as nesian society. This value can be traced back in a family, cosy, and ‘kangen’ (full of the to social units, such as family, firm, or state, feeling of belonging).” (Mulder, 1978:39) where authority is specific to a single person Rukun can be achieved with the belief that (Rademakers, 1998). In particular, Indonesian the person should put emphasis on the group authority relations are characterised by pater- interests instead of the interests of the individ- nalism or ‘bapakism’. The paternalistic rela- ual. All expression of the individual’s interests tionship between a superior and his or her leading to conflicts or disagreement should be subordinates resembles the relationship be- avoided. Unlike Western culture, which re- tween a father and child (Sagie & Aycan, gards individualism and group belonging as 2000). The term of ‘bapakism’ frequently used mutually exclusive, most Javanese consider by Indonesians means that the ‘bapak’ (father) the two intimately related (Mulder, 1978). is the leader of a society and is expected to Therefore, the basic values of Javanese culture care for the needs of his followers who are are the maintenance of social harmony (rukun) called ‘anak buah’ (children). In return, the used as moral guidance for social interaction anak buah are expected to respect their within both the family and the community, ‘bapak’ without interfering with his power and such as the workplace, schools, and political influence in society. In Javanese families, but organisations (Geertz, 1961; Murder, 1978; also in most other ethnic groups in Indonesia, Koentjaraningrat, 1985; Suseno, 1998). the father or the male embodies the highest authority (Rademakers,