\a Managing Protected . Areas in the Tropics i National Parks, Conservation, and Development The Role of Protected Areas in Sustaining Society Edited by JEFFREYA. MCNEELEYand KENTONR. MILLER Marine and Coastal Protected Areas A Guide for Planners and Managers By RODNEYV. SALM Assisted by JOHN R. CLARK Managing Protected Areas in the Tropics Compiled by JOHNand KATHYMACKINNON, Environmental Conservationists, based in UK; GRAHAMCHILD, former Director of National Parks and Wildlife Management, Zimbabwe; and JIM THORSELL,Executive Officer, Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, IUCN, Switzerland Based on the Workshops on Managing Protected Areas in the Tropics World Congress on National Parks, Bali, Indonesia, October I982 Organised by the IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas INTERNATIONALUNION FORCONSERVA~ON OF NATUREAND NATURALRESOURCES and the UNITEDNATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME INTERNATIONALUNION FORCONSERVATION OF NATUREAND NATURALRESOURCES, GLAND, SWKZERLAND 1986 - J IUCN - THE WORLD CONSERVATION UNION Founded in 1948, IUCN - the World Conservation Union - is a membership organisation comprising governments, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), research institutions, and conservation agencies in 120 countries. The Union’s objective is to promote and encourage the protection and sustainable utilisation of living resources. Several thousand scientists and experts from all continents form part of a network supporting the work of its six Commissions: threatened species, protected areas, ecology, sustainable development, environmental law, and environmental education and training. Its thematic programmes include tropical forests, wetlands, marine ecosystems, plants, the Sahel, Antarctica, population and sustainable development, and women in conservation. These activities enable IUCN and its members to develop sound policies and programmes for the conservation of biological diversity and sustainable development of natural resources. Published by: IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK in collaboration with the United Nations Environment Programme. A contribution to GEMS - the Global Environment Monitoring System. Copyright: 1986 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources/ United Nations Environment Programme. This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit purposes without special permission from the copyright holders provided acknowledgement of the source is made. No use of this publication may be made for resale or other commercial purpose without the prior written permission of the copyright holders. ISBN: 2-88032-808-X Cover photos: Neotropical Realm: Education display in Tortuguero National Park, Costa Rica. IUCN photo: P. Dugan Afrotropical Realm: Park rangers on patrol in Lake Manyara National Park, Tanzania. IUCNWWF photo: Iain Douglas-Hamilton Oceanian Realm: Parks staff conducting boundary survey. Irian Jaya, Indonesia. IUCNWWF photo: J.B. Ratcliffe Indomalayan Realm: Research on Axis deer. Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal. IUCNWWF photo: Peter Jackson. Book design: James Butler Printed by: Page Bros (Norwich) Limited, UK Available from: IUCN Publications Services Unit, 219c Huntingdon Road, Cambridge, CB3 ODL, UK The designations of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN or UNEP concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Reprinted 1989 l Contents Page . Participants: Workshops on Managing Protected Areas in the Tropics x111 Preface xiv Foreword Xvi 1. Iutroductlon “**Modern concepts of protected areas The road to Bali Challenges of managing tropical ecosystems Tropical rain forests: a vanishing resource Problems and challenges of establishing permanent reserves in tropical countries. PART A THE BASIS FOR ESTABLISHING PROTECIED AREAS 13 Categories of Protected Areas 15 Introduction 15 Criteria for classifying protected areas 16 Developing a system of categories for protected areas ’ 18 International system of categories 19 Selection of Sites for Protected Areas 27 Assessment of global biogeographical coverage of reserves 27 Genetic and species conservation considerations in selecting sites for protected 34 areas Implications of island biogeographic theory in selecting areas for protection 38 at the national level Tourism considerations in selection of protected areas 43 Hydrological Criteria for Selecting Sites for Protected Areas 46 Geographical Aspects of Selecting Sites for Protected Areas 47 Political Considerations in Selecting Sites for Protected Areas 48 Practical Considerations in Selecting Sites for Protected Areas 49 Reserves for Migratory Species 52 .- I 4. Policy, Law and Adminlstratlon for Managing Protected Areas 55 Introduction 55 Policy matters relating to protected areas 55 Legal aspects of protected areas management 56 Administrative matters relating to protected areas 64 Broadening participation and cooperation in the management of protected areas 67 vi PART B WINNING SUPPORT FOR PROTECTED AREAS 71 5. Integrating Protected Areas in Regional Land-Use Programmes 73 Introduction 73 How protected areas contribute to regional development 73 Protected areas and hydrological relationships 77 Protected areas and forestry 79 Protected areas and harvesting of wildlife and other natural resources 80 Protected areas and tourism 84 Protected areas and agriculture 88 Development of protected area buffer zones 90 Public works installations in protected areas 95 Integrating protected areas into regional development programmes 95 Conclusion 98 6. Local People and Protected Areas 99 Introduction 99 Protected areas and indigenous people 99 Human enclaves within protected areas 105 Protection of cultural sites 106 Direct harvesting from protected areas and buffer zones 106 Grazing in protected areas 111 Role of protected areas in improving tropical land use practices 111 Local preference in employment 113 Provision of social services - roads, health, assistance grants 113 Drawing the line - settlements and war games 116 Amboseli: A case study in resolving the conflict between man and wildlife 117 7. Communication and Public Relations for Protected Areas 120 Introduction 120 Visitor information and interpretation services 124 Protected area reference centre/collection 132 Schools and education service ’ 133 Local village extension service 135 Publicity and public relations 137 Committees and dialogue 139 Internal newsletter and information service 140 Conclusion 140 PART C MANAGING PROTECTED AREAS 141 c 8. Management of Natural Resources in Protected Areas 143 Introduction 143 The balance of ecosystems 144 Maintenance of genetic diversity 144 Management of genebanks 146 Managing rare and endangered animals 147 Protecting island reserves 152 Management of over-abundant populations 155 Control of problem animals originating from protected areas 156 Rehabilitation of captive animals 161 Introductions, reintroductions and translocations 164 Control of exotic species 168 Restoration of vegetation 168 Fire as a management tool 170 vii Grazing by domestic animals as a management tool 172 Harvesting plant products in protected areas 174 Hunting in and around protected areas 176 Wildlife farming and utilisation 176 Management for the maintenance of hydrological regimes 177 Protection of aesthetic values and geological sites 180 Directing research activities for the benefit of management 180 The need for inventory and monitoring 181 Management trials and experiments . 183 9. Planning for Protected Areis 185 Introduction 185 National strategies for conservation 185 Systems planning for protected areas 188 Planning of feasibility studies 188 Management plans 189 Annual operational plans - action plans 197 Site plans . 199 , Planning research programmes for protected areas 203 10. Implementing Management 209 Introduction 209 Allocation of duties and staff selection 209 Management of staff 215 Reporting 218 I Inspection and supervision 219 219 ; Maintenance of physical structures and stores I Patrolling 221 In-service training 223 Concession services 224 Controlling resource utilisation 227 i J 230 : Law enforcement ‘# i I 1 11. Evaluating the Effectiveness of Management 235 i (i Introduction 235 b. 1 Comparing expenditures and budgets 238 Evaluating progress in terms of time schedules 238 I Assessing attainment of goals 238 I Evaluating cost-effectiveness 240 i The use of checklists in evaluating management 241 I 12. International Cooperation 245 I The need for international assistance 245 Types of assistance 246 Sources of help: technical assistance agencies and organisations 248 UN Agencies 248 Other multinational organisations 249 Non-governmental organisations with international programme :S 249 Bilateral assistance 249 National government agencies with international programmes 250 Volunteer organisations 250 International banks 250 Other sources 252 Preparation and submission of requests 253 International and regional cooperation and conventions 255 / _ . vlll The role of IUCN and the CNPPA 260 A closing note 261 PART D BIBLIOGRAPHY 265 PART E APPENDIX 279 List of useful addresses of relevant agencies 281 Index of Protected Areas 287 General Index 290 ix i List of examples Page 1.1 Coverage of protected areas in the tropics 5 1.2 Tropical countries of over 20,000 sq km with over 10% of the land area