African lion (Panthera leo) behavior, monitoring, and survival in human-dominated landscapes By Stephanie Dolrenry A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Environment and Resources) at the UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON 2013 Date of final oral examination: 8th January, 2013 The dissertation is approved by the following members of the Final Oral Committee: Dr. Robert S. Lutz, Associate Professor, Forest and Wildlife Ecology Dr. Calvin B. DeWitt, Professor Emeritus, Environmental Studies Dr. Laurence G. Frank, Associate Research Zoologist, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology Dr. Charles T. Snowdon, Professor, Psychology Dr. Stephen J. Ventura, Professor, Soil Science and Environmental Studies © Copyright by Stephanie Dolrenry 2013 All Rights Reserved i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS “When spider webs unite, they can tie up a lion.” -Ethiopian Proverb This dissertation is the culmination of many people’s effort and support. First, thank you to the Kenyan Government and the Kenyan Wildlife Service (KWS), in particular the KWS unit of the Amboseli region, without their permissions this study would not have been possible. Secondly, thank you to the Maasai leaders and communities of Mbirikani, Eselenkei and Olgulului; it was only because of their blessings that this study was achieved. Thank you to R. Bonham and MPT/Big Life Foundation for your contribution and for your dedication to conservation on community lands. Thank you to Amboseli Trust for Elephants, Gamewatchers Porini, Amboseli Baboon Research Project, and Amboseli Lion Project; it is amazing to have committed neighbors who open their camps and share ideas. This work was made possible by the financial support of Panthera Foundation and the National Science Foundation; thank you for believing in this research. Many thanks to the Nelson Institute; I am grateful to A. Treves for his contribution to this study and to my dissertation committee members who were always supportive and understanding. Thank you in particular to R. S. Lutz who extended a helping hand when it was needed most. Many thanks to the researchers who contributed to the metapopulation analysis, most importantly J. Stenglein as well as C. Packer, H. Brink, P. Henschel, P. Schuette, A. Cotterill, S. Bhalla, J. King, A. Estes and S. Blackburn. To L. Frank– thank you for introducing me to Africa and for believing in my skills (even in a canoe), for your mentoring, editing, and for sharing a love of nature. Thank you to A. ii Howard, L. Carabine, K. McQualter, A. Cotterill, S. Blackburn, S. Ekwanga – your collaboration and dedication to conservation are appreciated and motivating. To L. McDonald for the lessons and advice, to B. Eldridge for the conversations and collaborations, to L. Gelber for always being willing to help and to D. Young for your friendship and for making your home, my home. To the most important people of this study, the Lion Guardians; you are a wonderful and inspiring group of people. Thank you for your friendship, trust, and sincere dedication, for saving me from floods and mud, and for the many memorable hours of lion stalking, laughter, and the chai and stories; you have touched my life forever. Thank you in particular to L. Nkiinti who taught me more than I could ever teach him. Thanks to L. Mamaai and E. Kesoi – you were there when needed whether it was data or friendship. Thank you to Justus and Maria for your friendship and laughter. And to the person who gave so much to this study, P. Briggs - thank you for being a friend and helping at all hours no matter how challenging the task. Lastly, to my best friend, L. Hazzah – thank you for the strategic yin that complemented my empathic yang. To my friends: B. Zug and T. Shelley for being the best lab mates, during the laughter, the tears, the Kool-Aid drinking and the abandoning of islands; E. Bagley for your editing and friendship during tough times; A. Estes for your encouragement during the long days of writing; to J. Lee for dragging me out to nature when I most needed it and for your brilliant editing. To my family: thanks to Rob, for always being there with the endless love and lectures of a big brother; to Chris, for making me who I am today, and to Mum, words cannot capture the love and gratitude I feel for your support and providing of a home, hot showers, warm meals and unwavering love, both for Tibu and me. Thank you to the many more people who have contributed to this work and touched my life. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgments............................................................................................................................ i Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... iii List of Figures ..................................................................................................................................v List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ vii List of Acronyms and Abbreviations ........................................................................................... viii Glossary of Maa and Swahili Terms ............................................................................................ viii Introduction to the Dissertation ......................................................................................................1 Study System ........................................................................................................................8 Introduction to the Chapters ..............................................................................................12 CHAPTER I: Demography of a persecuted African lion population ........................................14 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................15 Materials and Methods Study Area .........................................................................................................................16 Results ...........................................................................................................................................22 Predation ...........................................................................................................................29 Discussion .....................................................................................................................................33 CHAPTER II: Participatory monitoring of an elusive carnivore on community lands ...........41 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................42 Theory and background .....................................................................................................43 Materials and Methods Study Area ..........................................................................................................................45 Lion Guardians ..................................................................................................................48 Report Verifications ..........................................................................................................49 Lion Population .................................................................................................................50 Spoor Surveys.....................................................................................................................51 Spoor Analysis ...................................................................................................................53 Results Lion Guardians Reporting Accuracy ................................................................................54 iv Improved Data Quantity and Quality ...............................................................................55 Spoor Counting Results......................................................................................................58 Discussion .....................................................................................................................................60 CHAPTER III: Lion occupancy of pastoral communities in Maasailand, Kenya ....................63 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................64 Materials and Methods Modeling Approach ..........................................................................................................66 Study Area ..........................................................................................................................67 Survey Methods ..................................................................................................................67 Site Covariates ...................................................................................................................69 Statistical Methods ............................................................................................................69 Results ...........................................................................................................................................70 Discussion .....................................................................................................................................74 CHAPTER IV: A metapopulation analysis of