1 The River of Life: Sustainable Practices of Native Americans and Indigenous Peoples Michael E Marchand A dissertation Submitted in partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Washington 2013 Reading Committee: Kristiina Vogt, Chair Richard Winchell Daniel Vogt Program Authorized to Offer Degree School of Environmental and Forest Sciences 2 ©Copyright 2013 Michael E Marchand 3 University of Washington Abstract The River of Life: Sustainable Practices of Native Americans and Indigenous Peoples Michael E Marchand Chair of Supervisory Committee Dr. Kristiina Vogt School of Environmental and Forest Sciences This dissertation examines how Indigenous people have been forced to adapt for survival after exploitation by Colonial powers. It explains how the resultant decision making models of Indigenous people, based on their traditions and culture, have promoted sustainable growth and development more in harmony with ecological systems. In a 1992 address to the United Nations, a Hopi spiritual leader warned of his tribe’s prophecy that stated there are two world views or paths that humankind can take. Path One is based on technology that is separate from natural and spiritual law. This path leads to chaos and destruction. Path Two development remains in harmony with natural law and leads to paradise. Therefore humans, as children of Mother Earth, need to clean up the messes before it is too late and get onto Path Two and live in harmony with natural law. 4 Water is the focus for this dissertation, as it crosses all aspects of life. Rivers, for example, have a dual purpose. They are a source of life. But humans also treat rivers as a waste dump. The rivers often are not treated very well. In 1858, the British Parliament was adjourned because of the “Great Stink” emanating from the Thames River, which was used as a sewer for human waste and pollution. Rivers have been manipulated for flood control, shipping, energy, and irrigation. Rivers have even been de- watered for human consumption. Often water resources have been exploited to benefit some, but often these projects externalized negative impacts to the Indigenous people who previously lived in harmony on these same rivers for thousands of years. Native Americans have been forced to adapt to Colonial models of development for survival. For example, the Columbia River has provided a wealth of resources for Native Americans for thousands of years. The river was lush with vegetation and abundant salmon resources. But beginning in the 1940’s, the US built numerous large hydroelectric dams, turning the river into a series of lakes today. Tribes have had to endure numerous economic booms and busts associated with large scale dam construction repeatedly. Most of the benefits go to communities far from the river today in the form of energy and for irrigation water. But for the Indigenous people who were once fishermen, the salmon runs were destroyed completely in many areas. Native Americans suffered greatly. The dams were built with no regard to negative impacts on the salmon or Native Americans. But the Native Americans today are taking the lead on mitigating the dam impacts and through their efforts salmon are making a comeback once again. Native 5 Americans have been able to pressure the dam owners to modify the dams to improve fish passage and they have pressured the fishing industry to better regulate fish harvest. This has been possible because their decision-making is based on their Indigenous traditions and culture. Similar struggles are taking place around the world. There is no single Indigenous model however. Each Indigenous cultural group is unique and there is diversity. Their locations are different. Some Indigenous people have adapted and partially assimilated into Colonial cultures. In other cases they have chosen to be separate. Indigenous decisions are made locally so they live with the impacts. Decisions also tend to be made for the good of the community and there is less focus on the individual. Long range goals tend to be more valued then short term gains. This is reflected in business planning. Native Americans consider the impact to 7 Generations into the future. They live with the consequences of their business decisions. They are not absentee owners such as foreign investors. Protecting ways of life are more important then short term gains. In contrast, non-tribal Colonial based business models often have goals more short term in nature. Plans are often really just vehicles for getting project financing. Business is often greatly influenced by the individual CEO and by out of local area stockholders. The old traditional Western view of man as separate from nature is seeming to begin to evolve and beginning to move in the direction of Indigenous world views, but consensus is still far away 6 and not a sure outcome yet. These stories are recounted in this dissertation. Indigenous people rely on their history and culture and traditions. The goals are long term and not short term. The timeline is almost timeless. Decisions are concerned with both how their ancestors would view them and also how they impact future generations. They view everything as alive with a spirit. Everything is inter- connected. The earth is Mother and is alive. These foundational beliefs have allowed tribes to survive and to adapt to ever changing situations. 7 Table of Contents Sustainability: Learning from the Past 1 Tribal Introduction to Sustainability 12 2 The Context for the sustainability story 17 2.1 Essential sustainability: Insights from a water metaphor 17 2.1.1 Water – a scarce global commons resource 17 2.1.2 Water as a sacred resource 19 Box 1 Drinking Water before Ceremonial Dinners – Native American 20 Box 2 Waterfall Ritual at the Fourth Congress of Indigenous Peoples Alliance of Archipelago – Aman 21 2.1.3 Water, water everywhere but still scarce 22 2.2 Colonial models are never sustainable 26 2.2.1 Beginning of European conquest 26 2.2.2 The beginning of collapse in resource rich lands 28 2.3 We need a different glue to make sustainability work 31 2.4 Our coyote mascot blends the dual nature of sustainability 36 Box 3 The Coquille Indians: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow (from Hall [25] 1991) 37 3 Battles to eliminate Native American traditions and culture 38 3.1 European colonial ‘Manifest Destiny 39 3.1.1 Taming Indian lands through agriculture 41 3.1.2 Euro-Americans settling the ‘Wild West’ 42 3.1.3 Becoming civilized: Redemption and westward migration 47 3.2 War on Native American cultures and traditions 50 3.2.1 Relocation, termination, and assimilation policies 51 3.2.1.1 Relocation and loss of customary lands 51 3.2.1.2 Termination 58 3.2.1.3 Assimilation 60 Box 4 Native Spirituality Today (from Kimberly Craven [41], Sisseton-Wahpeton Oyate 61 3.2.2 Removal of buffalo for ‘Manifest Destiney’ 66 3.2.3 Removal of salmon in the Pacific Northwest 68 Box 5 Great Salmon Fisheries and Kettle Falls 70 3.2.4 Building dams on Tribal lands 72 Box 6 Ceremony of Tears 73 3.2.4.1 Negative impacts of Grand Coulee Dam 75 Box 7 Atlantic Fisheries [21](from Treft's 2000) 77 3.3 Contemporary context of Native American lands and resources 82 8 A Lens on Culture and Traditions of Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities 4 Introduction to folklore and cultural survival 88 Box 8 A Coyote Story on Human Behavior towards Nature (from Hall [25]) 90 Box 9 Sundanese Kasepuhan on the Holiness of Rice 92 Box 10 Plants in Ceremonies and Medicines (by Jonathan Tallman, Yakama Nation) 93 Box 11 Native Alaskan in Prison for Practicing Funeral Ritual 95 Box 12 Washington’s Centennial Celebration 1989 by Rodney (Colville Tribes) 96 5 What does it mean to be a traditional ecological practitioner? 97 5.1 Practicing culture: Story from Halimum Ecosystem Area, Indonesia 98 5.2 Framework characterizing the opportunities and constraints to practicing culture and traditions 102 Portfolio for Sustainability: Native Ameican Behavior Blended with Western Science 6 The Nuts and bolts of a sustainable portfolio 109 6.1 Western Science of Ecosystem and Adaptive Management 110 Box 13 Examples of Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Culture (by Jonathon Tallman, Yakama Nation) 114 6.2 Western world ecosystem and adaptive management 116 Box 14 Terms Describing Scarcity of Land and Scarcity of Scientific Information Information (Gordon 1992) 117 6.3 Essential Sustainability: Building a Native American behavior and thinking toolkit 120 Box 15 WSU/Washington State Forest Owners Field Day by Rodney Cawston (Colville Tribes) 125 7 Portfolio Element #1. How to connect society with nature 129 7.1 Divergent models of ‘wild’ nature and how different societies connect to it 130 7.2 Western world model: Nature bounded by borders 135 7.2.1 Nature needs to be controlled 137 7.2.2 Zoo becomes a nature experience 140 7.2.3 Today’s Nature: Bounded by larger artificial landscapes 144 7.3 Native American model: Borderless nature 148 7.3.1 American tribes: Nature, sense of property is culture based 149 7.3.3 No Walls: Active landscape management, nature not wasted 154 8 Portfolio Element #2: How to make practical and realistic decisions 158 8.1 To become sustainable don’t ‘Throw out the baby with the bathwater’ 158 9 8.2 Leave your individual biases outside the door 163 8.2.1 ‘False’ Indian stories 163 8.2.2 Stories of Real Indians 170 8.2.2.1 The Life of Mike as told by Mike 171 Box 16 Mike’s letter to Santa Claus 172 8.2.2.2 The Life of John McCoy (as recounted by John McCoy, Tulalip