Running head: AN EXPLORATION OF THE CHALLENGES OF ACCESS AND RETENTION Boayue, Nuhn Monique An Exploration of the Challenges of Access and Retention Reintegrating Former Refugee and Internally Displaced Girls into Secondary School in Post-conflict Liberia Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Master of Multicultural and International Education (MIE) Spring 2014 Master in Multicultural and International Education Faculty of Education and International Studies Oslo and Akershus University College of Applied Sciences AN EXPLORATION OF THE CHALLENGES OF ACCESS AND RETENTION i Map of Liberia The three countries that have direct borders with Liberia are as follow: La Cote d’Ivoire is located in the east near Zwedru, the site of the study Guinea, Conakry is located north of Liberia Sierra Leone is located in the west i AN EXPLORATION OF THE CHALLENGES OF ACCESS AND RETENTION ii Table of Contents Map of Liberia………………………………………..……………….………………………….i Table of contents………………………………………………………………………………....ii Acknowledgements……………………………………………..………………………………vii Abstract………………………………………………………………………..…………….…viii Acronyms and abbreviations………………………………………….………………………...x Chapter 1: Introduction of the study……………………….…………………....1 1.1 Overview of the study………………….……….………………….………………...……1 1.2 Education for All (EFA)……………………………………………………………..……2 1.3 Objective and research questions………………………………………………….………4 1.4 Justification of the study………………………………………………………………......4 1.5 Approach to the study……………………………………………….………………….....6 1.6 Structure of the thesis……………………………………………………………………...6 Chapter 2: Background and Conceptual Framework…………….……………7 2.1 Overview of the chapter………………………………………………………...…………7 2.2 Gender roles and education in traditional Liberia…………………………………………7 2.3 Arrival of the settlers and the First Republic (1822 – 1980)……………………………...9 2.4 The military regime and the Second Republic (1980 – 1989)…..……………………….10 2.5 The civil war: (1989 – 2003).………………………………..…….…………………….11 2.6 Education as a contributing factor to the war and challenge for reconstruction efforts....12 2.7 Contemporary Liberia: Social structures and Economic Conditions….....…….……..….13 2.7.1 Religious communities and education…………………………………………………...14 2.7.2 Civil society organizations in Liberia……………………………………………………15 2.7.3 Traditional gender roles and family relationships ……………………………………..16 2.7.4 Socio-economic profile and unemployment among females…………………...….……17 2.7.4.1 LIGIS Labor survey……………….……………………………………………….……19 ii AN EXPLORATION OF THE CHALLENGES OF ACCESS AND RETENTION iii 2.7.4.2 NGO survey of unemployment in Liberia……………………….…………………..…..20 2.7.5 The process and the challenges of education reconstruction on the basis of reports…….20 2.7.6 Structure of the education system in Liberia: the 9-3-4 system……………………….…24 2.7.7 Senior secondary education……………………………………………………...………25 2.7.8 Zwedru…………………………………………………………………………………...26 Chapter 3: Theoretical and conceptual framework……………………...……27 3.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………27 3.2 Socializations theories in relation to the construction of gender…………………..….…28 3.3 Gender and education: Parity, Equality and Equity……………………..…………….…31 3.4 Mainstream Approaches to Gender in Education………………………………………..33 3.5 The Capability Approach………………………………………………………….……..34 3.6 Education Policies and Practices: Language and culture…………...……………...…….38 3.7 The purpose of formal Education……………………………………………………......41 3.8 Education and conflict…………………………………………………………………...42 3.9 The notion of Quality in Education…………………….……………………………......44 3.10 Summary of the chapter……………………………………….…………………………45 Chapter 4: Research Methodology……………………………………………..45 4.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………45 4.2 The qualitative choice……………………………………………………………...…….46 4.2.1 The case study as a research tool………………………………………..……………….47 4.3 Access to the research site and “breaking the ice”……………………………………....48 4.4 Sampling methods and sample size……………………………………..……………….49 4.4.1 Overview of informants in Zwedru and Monrovia…………………………….………...51 4.5 Data collection methods and analysis of the data……………………………………......51 4.5.1 Interview as a qualitative research method in my study………………………….…..….51 4.5.1.1 Downsides of interview as qualitative research method………………………….……...52 4.5.2 Observation as qualitative research method in my study……….…………….……….....52 iii AN EXPLORATION OF THE CHALLENGES OF ACCESS AND RETENTION iv 4.5.2.1 Downsides of observation as qualitative research method………………….…………...53 4.5.3 Document review in qualitative research………………………….………………….…54 4.5.3.1 Specific documents reviewed in the study………….…………….………………….…..54 4.5.3.2 Challenges of the document review………………………………….……………….…54 4.6 Recording, transcription and coding of data………………………………….………....55 4.7 The researcher as insider – outsider: some self-reflections…………………….………..55 4.8 Limitations and challenges of the study………………………………….………………57 4.9 Ethical considerations in the study………………………...…………………….………57 4.10 Triangulation…………………………………………………………………………..…58 4.11 Reliability and validity…………………………………………………………………...59 4.12 Summary of the chapter……………………………………………………………….....60 Chapter 5: Findings……………………………………………………………...61 5.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………61 5.2 How is the GOL addressing the need to have an educated female population…………..61 5.2.1 Education Act of 2011 and its mission and vision for education in Liberia…………..…62 5.2.2 Decentralization of MOE authority………………………...……………………………62 5.2.3 Curriculum Reform of 2011……………………………………………………………...63 5.2.4 Girls’ Education Unit (GEU)………………………………………………………….....64 5.2.5 National Policy on Girls’ Education……………………………………………………..64 5.2.6 The notion of quality in education…………………………………………………….....66 5.2.7 Challenges to girls’ education according to the Ministry of Education………………....66 5.2.8 How GOL is addressing challenges to education reconstruction …………….………....67 5.3 How are NGOs contributing to meet the educational needs of the female population…..69 5.3.1 Uddannelse Skaber Udvikling (IBIS)………………………………………………....…69 5.3.2 German Agro Action (GAA)………………………………………….…………………70 5.3.3 Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC)………………………………….……………..…..71 5.3.4 Medica Mondiale…………………………………………………………………….…..72 iv AN EXPLORATION OF THE CHALLENGES OF ACCESS AND RETENTION v 5.4 What are returnee girls’ challenges to access and retention, and how are these challenges influenced by the wider community………………………………………………….....72 5.4.1 Language of instruction and communication…………………………………….……...73 5.4.2 Girls’ role models………………………………………………………………………..74 5.4.3 Sex education…………………………………………………………………………….75 5.4.4 Prevalence of SGBV……………………………………………………………………..75 5.4.5 Early marriages…………………………………………………………………………..76 5.4.6 Single motherhood……………………………………………………………………….76 5.4.7 Household chores………………………………………………………………………...77 5.4.8 Age and shame………………………………………………………………………...…78 5.4.9 Stigmatization……………………………………………………………………………79 5.4.10 Peer pressure……………………………………………………………………………..80 5.4.11 Survival sex………………………………………………………………………………81 5.4.12 Issues in the wider community…………………………………………………………..81 5.5 Summary of the chapter…................................................................................................83 Chapter 6: Analysis and discussion…….…………………………..….……….84 6.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………...84 6.2 How is the Government of Liberia addressing the need to have an educated female population………………………………………………………………………………..84 6.2.1 Education reconstruction: Are the policies and practices targeting the girls…………....85 6.2.2 Decentralization and the local schools………………………………..…………………86 6.2.3 Curriculum reform, textbooks and the local schools…………………………………….88 6.2.4 Multi-dimensional challenges of funding education in Liberia……………………….....90 6.2.5 Educating to contest unemployment among females……………………………………. 6.3 How are NGOs contributing to meet the educational needs of the female population…..93 6.3.1 Policies and practices for change and sustainability……………………………………..93 6.3.2 Skills training as empowerment ……………………………………………...………….94 6.3.3 Eradicating SGBV for improved girls’ education…………………………………….....95 v AN EXPLORATION OF THE CHALLENGES OF ACCESS AND RETENTION vi 6.4 What are returnee girls’ challenges to access and retention and how are these challenges influenced by the wider community……………………………………………………..96 6.4.1 Language of instruction and indigenous knowledge(s) in schools….………………...…96 6.4.2 Lack of female teachers as role models in schools …………………………….……......98 6.4.3 SGBV prevalence as challenge to girls’ education………..……………….………….…99 6.4.4 Early marriages and traditional gender roles as challenges………………..…………...100 6.4.5 Single motherhood as challenge to girls and the community…………………………..100 6.4.6 Household chores as challenge to girls’ education……..………………..……………..101 6.4.7 Age and shame: a challenge to girls’ education ………………………….………..…..102 6.4.8 Stigmatization as challenge to girls’ education ……………………………....………..103 6.4.9 Peer pressure as challenge to girls’ education……..…………………………..……….104 6.4.10 Survival sex as a challenge……………………………………………………………..104 6.4.11 Conditions in the wider community influencing education ……………..……………..105 6.5 Summary of data analysis and discussion………………………………..……………..106 Chapter 7: Conclusions………………………………………………………...107 7.1 General remarks………………………………………………………………………...107 7.2 Potential ways to enhance girls’ access to and retention in secondary school………....108 7.3