THE TWELVE APOSTLES: DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND FUNCTION OF LATE 16TH-CENTURY SPANISH GALLEONS A Dissertation by JOSE LUIS CASABAN BANACLOCHA Submitted to the Office of Graduate and Professional Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Chair of Committee, Cemal Pulak Committee Members, Kevin Crisman James Bradford Donny Hamilton Head of Department, Cynthia Werner December 2017 Major Subject: Anthropology Copyright 2017 José Luis Casabán Banaclocha ABSTRACT The development of the Spanish galleon as a specialized warship took place in Spain during the 16th century. A series of prototypes built in Spain in that century incorporated concepts and technological solutions from both the Mediterranean and the Atlantic maritime traditions, and became the basis for this new type of vessel. The Spanish galleon was designed in response to changes in Atlantic trade routes at the beginning of the 16th century when, as a result of Spanish transoceanic expansion, new and more specialized vessels were needed for both the coastal defense of Spain and its overseas territories, as well as to escort the oceanic fleets. In November 1588, King Philip II of Spain ordered the construction of 12 new galleons of 500, 600, and 800 toneladas, four ships of each tonnage, specifically designed as warships. These galleons were to replace the losses that occurred after the failure of the Spanish Armada against England, since the chronic Spanish shortage of warships was aggravated by the loss of some of the best naval units. This decision marked the beginning of the largest shipbuilding program attempted in Spain until that moment. These galleons would became known as the Twelve Apostles. The present study focuses on the analysis of the design and construction of the Twelve Apostles based on original documents currently held at the Archive of Simancas in Spain, shipbuilding treatises and manuscripts, and archaeological evidence. The documents provide a realistic portrayal of the organizational requirements and challenges of a construction project of such magnitude in the context of a pre-industrial ii society. Moreover, the comparative analysis of 16th- and 17th-century Spanish designs and survey reports, shipbuilding treatises, manuscripts, ordinances, and shipbuilding contracts reveals the evolution of the ship design in Spain. Finally, the study confirms that the design of the midship sections of the vessels of this period, including those of the Twelve Apostles, was based on the use of a single arc. Therefore, a series of alternative interpretations for the reconstruction of the midship section of Iberian-built vessels is provided based on this method. iii DEDICATION To my parents. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my committee chair, Dr. Pulak, and my committee members, Dr. Crisman, Dr. Hamilton, and Dr. Bradford, for their guidance and support throughout the course of this research. I also want to thank my colleague Dave Ruff for his help and encouragement during the final stage of my dissertation. Special thanks to Dr. Pulak for his unlimited patience, support, and advice during these years. Thanks also go to my friends, and the Department of Anthropology faculty and staff. Finally, thanks to the amazing Grace. v CONTRIBUTORS AND FUNDING SOURCES This work was supervised by a dissertation committee consisting of my committee chair Dr. Pulak, and Drs. Crisman and Hamilton of the Department of Anthropology, and Dr. Bradford of the History Department. All work for the dissertation was completed independently by the student. My dissertation research at the Spanish archives was supported by the Vision 2020 Dissertation Enhancement Award from the College of Liberal Arts, and the research funds provided by the Institute of Nautical Archaeology, the Center for Maritime Archaeology and Conservation, and the Department of Anthropology of Texas A&M University. vi NOMENCLATURE AGI Archivo General de Indias, Seville AGS Archivo General de Simancas Art. Artículo BNM Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid CMC Contaduría Mayor de Cuentas Col. Colección Ct. Contaduría Doc. Documento DRAE Diccionario de la Real Academia Española Fol. Folio Leg. Legajo GYM Guerra y Marina MNM Museo Naval de Madrid MPD Mapas, Planos y Dibujos MP Mapas y Planos Ms. Manuscrito Núm. Número n. Número T Tomo vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................. ii DEDICATION.............................................................................................................. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................... v CONTRIBUTORS AND FUNDING SOURCES .......................................................... vi NOMENCLATURE .................................................................................................... vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................ viii LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................... xiii LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................... xviii CHAPTER I THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GALLEON IN SPAIN IN THE 16TH CENTURY (1540-1581) ................................................................................................ 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1 The origin of the galleon ............................................................................................ 4 The development of the galleon in Spain .................................................................... 5 The geographical context........................................................................................ 6 The nao .................................................................................................................. 7 Bazán’s galeazas (galleasses) and galeones (galleons) (1540-1550) ......................... 11 Galizabras ............................................................................................................... 13 The galeoncetes (small galleons) of Pedro Menéndez de Avilés (1567) .................... 16 Rodrigo de Vargas's report about Menéndez's galeoncetes (1575) ........................ 17 The committee of Santander’s description of Menéndez’s galleons (1581) ........... 22 The galleass San Cristóbal (1578) ............................................................................ 28 The galleons of Cristóbal de Barros (1581-1583) ..................................................... 31 The design of Diego Flores de Valdés (February 1581) ........................................ 32 The first design of the Santander committee (March 1581) ................................... 34 The design of the Seville committee (August 1581) .............................................. 36 The final design of the Santander committee (September 1581) ............................ 40 CHAPTER II THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE TWELVE APOSTLES ..................... 45 viii The committee of shipwrights .................................................................................. 46 The shipyards ........................................................................................................... 47 Cristóbal de Barros and the construction of the Twelve Apostles.............................. 51 The final distribution of the galleons and shipyards .................................................. 55 Building the Twelve Apostles .................................................................................. 58 Launching the galleons ............................................................................................ 70 Acquisition of the masts and yards for the galleons .................................................. 84 The hulks (urcas) with the spars depart from Sanlúcar ............................................. 97 The arrival of the hulks (urcas) ................................................................................ 98 The distribution of the spars between Santander and Deusto .................................... 99 Outfitting the galleons for the Armada ................................................................... 101 Bringing the galleons from Santander to El Ferrol .................................................. 109 Meanwhile in Portugalete… ................................................................................... 111 Problems with the masts of the other galleons in Santander .................................... 113 The other three galleons depart from Portugalete.................................................... 115 The Armada in El Ferrol ........................................................................................ 117 The completion of the remaining galleons .............................................................. 120 CHAPTER III DESIGNING THE TWELVE APOSTLES (1588-1590) ..................... 125 The main dimensions of the Twelve Apostles ........................................................ 135 The keel (quilla) ................................................................................................. 138 The breadth (manga) .......................................................................................... 148 The length (esloria)