An Examination of Dog Ownership in the Promotion of Walking as a Form of Physical Activity and its Effects on Physical and Psychological Health by Nikolina Antonacopoulos A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Affairs in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology Carleton University Ottawa, Canada ©2016 Nikolina Antonacopoulos Abstract The low percentage of Canadian adults who are sufficiently active is of concern in light of the detrimental health consequences associated with insufficient physical activity. Two studies were conducted in order to explore dog walking as a means of obtaining physical activity and the possible health benefits from dog walking. In Study 1, dog walking was examined from three perspectives through a week-long study of 61 regular dog walkers. First, summary statistics revealed that slightly more than half of the time spent dog walking was at a moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity (MVPA1) level and approximately 2 in 5 dog owners met the Canadian physical activity guideline through dog walking alone. Second, analyses revealed that an important factor affecting time spent dog walking at a MVPA1 level is the size of the dog, as it is a factor that individuals who are acquiring a dog can take into consideration. Another key finding was that all of the dog walkers reported that they walk their dog for its well-being, which indicates that dog walking is a purposeful physical activity. This suggests that dog walking should be promoted in terms of its benefits for the dog. Third, analyses comparing dog walkers' psychological health before and after their dog walks revealed an improvement on six out of seven psychological health measures. In Study 2, results from an 8-month longitudinal study revealed that, as hypothesized, participants who acquired a dog (n = 17) increased their MVPA1 from baseline to 8 months, while there was no change in the control group (n = 28). Contrary to expectations, although individuals in the acquired-dog group became more active over time, they did not experience any improvements in their physical or psychological health over the course of the study relative to the control group. Taken together, these findings suggest that promoting dog ii walking may be one way of increasing physical activity. The short-term health benefits that occur after dog walking need to be explored further, while the possible long-term health benefits need to be examined using a larger sample over a longer time frame. iii Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to thank Dr. Tim Pychyl for encouraging me to conduct research in an area about which I am passionate. Your enthusiastic support and helpful feedback were appreciated. I would also like to thank Dr. Connie Kristiansen for fostering my interest in examining the ways in which pets affect people's health. Furthermore, I would like to thank Dr. Rachel Colley and Dr. John Zelenski for their invaluable advice as I encountered challenges throughout the thesis process. Finally, I am indebted to Dr. Andrea Howard for her assistance regarding statistical matters. My thesis would not have been possible without the unconditional support provided by my wonderful parents who encouraged me to pursue a PhD. I am grateful for all that they have done for me. I am especially grateful for their assistance, which enabled me to repeatedly crisscross the city for my data collection. I would also like to give special thanks to my sister and brother-in-law not only for their emotional support, but for sending me a chocolate thesis survival kit when I needed it most. I dedicate my thesis to my adorable standard poodle, Ernest. Although you did not live to see me finish my thesis, I will always treasure the time we had together and think fondly of all the times you sat beside me, gazing at me while I worked on my thesis. iv Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ iv List of Tables ................................................................................................................... viii List of Figures .................................................................................................................. xiii List of Appendices ........................................................................................................... xiv Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 Health Consequences of Insufficient Physical Activity ............................................ 3 Physical Activity Guidelines ..................................................................................... 6 Assessing Physical Activity Levels ........................................................................... 9 Dog Walking as a Form of Physical Activity .......................................................... 17 Factors Affecting Time Spent Dog Walking ........................................................... 24 Health Benefits Associated With Dog Walking ...................................................... 30 Limitations of Studies Conducted To Date ............................................................. 39 Rationale .................................................................................................................. 42 Study 1: Dog Walking ...................................................................................................... 49 Method ..................................................................................................................... 50 Participants ..................................................................................................... 50 Study Eligibility Criteria ................................................................................ 50 Procedure........................................................................................................ 51 Measures for Time Spent Dog Waking (Part 1a) ........................................... 54 Measures for Factors Affecting Time Spent Dog Walking (Part 1b) ............ 56 Measures for Psychological Health Study (Part 1c) ...................................... 63 v Results for Time Spent Dog Walking (Part 1a) and Factors Affecting Time Spent Dog Walking (Part 1b) ............................................................................................ 65 Preliminary Analyses ..................................................................................... 65 Examination of the Time Spent Dog Walking (Part 1a) ................................ 72 Descriptive Statistics for Factors Affecting Time Spent Dog Walking (Part 1b) .......................................................................................................... 77 Main Analyses of Factors Affecting Time Spent Dog Walking (Part 1b) ..... 85 Summary for Part 1a and Part 1b ................................................................... 93 Results for Psychological Health Study (Part 1c) ................................................... 95 Preliminary Analyses ..................................................................................... 95 Main Analyses for Psychological Health Study (Part 1c) .............................. 99 Summary ................................................................................................................ 101 Study 2: Longitudinal Study ........................................................................................... 102 Method ................................................................................................................... 103 Participants ................................................................................................... 103 Procedure...................................................................................................... 104 Measures ...................................................................................................... 108 Dog Walking ................................................................................................ 118 Results ................................................................................................................... 121 Preliminary Analyses ................................................................................... 121 Main Analyses .............................................................................................. 147 Physical activity. ................................................................................. 147 Meeting the physical activity guidelines. ........................................... 153 vi Physical and psychological health ...................................................... 158 Dog walking ....................................................................................... 168 Summary.................................................................................................................175 Discussion ....................................................................................................................... 177 Understanding Dog Walking as a Form of Physical Activity ............................... 178 Short-Term Health Benefits from Dog Walking 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