University of Leeds School of Politics and International Studies Evolution through Revolution? The Syrian Muslim Brotherhood and the Syrian Uprising Sumaya Gamal El Din Nasser Submitted in accordance with the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy December 2017 I confirm that the work submitted is my own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others. This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. © 2017 The University of Leeds and Sumaya Gamal El Din Nasser The right of Sumaya Gamal El Din Nasser to be identified as Author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. 1 Acknowledgment First of all, I would like to reflect on the blessing of getting the opportunity to go through the experience of writing a thesis at a time when all eyes were focused on the Syrian crisis. It is a true privilege to have had the chance to examine such a sensitive and important topic at my age and using my long years of experience which I gathered through living in many different countries and integrating in different cultures and communities. I would like to extend a heart-felt thank you to my incredible husband Abdul-Malek who stood behind my achievements and continued to facilitate for me to keep going even when times getting tough. His passion to work for his beloved, war-torn Syria has never ceased to inspire me and I am so proud of the steps we have walked together. Perhaps the most significant one of our achievements is undoubtedly our six children who have all outdone any expectations we ever had for them, academically and politically. I appreciated their quite critical reflections on my hypothesis and analyses during our countless cups of morning coffees. This filled me with delight and joy and will continue to be my source of happiness during turbulent times. I would also like to cordially thank the plentiful interviewee respondents; by addressing a special and great “thank you” to all members of the SMB who participated in this research. They gave me their time and input without expecting anything in return and were truly some of the utmost pleasant people I have worked with in my journey. As a woman and a researcher, I was highly respected and very much welcomed although at times this thesis was probably not a priority for any Syrian person given the experienced turbulent times in Syria. Every family, every person, every community, every organisation, every child, and every mother in Syria has an absolutely heart-breaking story, which members of the Western academic world would never be able to understand or take in. The scale of the crisis is simply huge and the suffering is unimaginable. 2 This journey back into academia could have never happened if it was not for the endless support from my supervisors Dr Lars Berger, Associate Professor in International Security and Dr Hendrik Jan Kraetzschmar, Associate Professor in the Comparative Politics of the Middle East and North Africa, who stood by my decision to take up a controversial topic and highlight its significance given the current climate. Their support is what refined my academic standards and made this thesis what it is; despite having to put up with slightly unconventional approaches I brought with me from my previously creative career path, Lars and Hendrik did a fantastic job at adding to my skillset and igniting my passion for academic research! Writing this thesis would not have been possible without my parents. This may be perhaps unusual as I am 65; where people (usually?) retires. Although my parents have passed away long before I even considered continuing with my studies, if it was not for the critical and political upbringing from my early childhood days, this day would never have come true. May they rest in peace 3 Abstract Syria’s peaceful uprising turned into an armed conflict with Assad’s lethal response to demonstrations demanding dignity and freedom. Looking for an oppositional Syrian political power who might have influenced dynamics on the ground, light was shed on the Syrian Muslim Brotherhood (SMB). As dictatorships toppled in 2011 in the region and were replaced by MB-related parties such as in Egypt and Tunisia, the interest into the previously exiled SMB increased as a Syrian alternative. Research in this area was predominantly concerned with SMB’s history, and did not examine how the SMB’s shaped the ongoing events in Syria, and how in return, the conflict shaped the SMB. This thesis analyses, mainly through exclusive interviews, the SMB’s evolution as a prominent Syrian opposition group both on the domestic and international level. Findings show a shift in priorities within the organization from the hierarchal system to a wide-spectrum approach through various charitable, social and political activities enabling the SMB’s reintegration into the Syrian society. Nevertheless, due to pressures from international and domestic powers, the SMB diluted into the wider opposing bodies and lost the forefront position within the political stage. The international scrutiny facing the SMB increased as the Egyptian MB experienced political damage following the military coup in 2013. This was followed by the threat- driven apathy from the Gulf states towards the MB. Western Governments also did not support the SMB despite the democratic and pluralistic vision for a future Syria being inherent in the SMB’s principles. Eventually, the SMB kept itself over water as Turkey and Qatar acted as a lifeline. The above-mentioned issues including wider historical links and the internal structures of the SMB creates a fascinating angle to the Syrian crisis which had not been researched before and provides the basis for future research on this ever-evolving situation. 4 Table of Content Acknowledgment ...................................................................................................................... 2 Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... 4 Table of Content ....................................................................................................................... 5 List of Charts: ........................................................................................................................... 7 List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................ 8 Chapter 1: Introduction .............................................................................................. 9 1.1 Research Objectives, Questions, and Contributions ..................................................... 11 1.2 Research Design and Methodology ................................................................................. 17 1.3 Thesis Structure ................................................................................................................ 23 Chapter 2 Literature Review .................................................................................... 26 2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 26 2.2 The Muslim Brotherhood as a Socio-Political Actor ..................................................... 26 2.3 The SMB, as a Moderate Islamic Organization, and its Democracy Rhetoric ........... 27 2.4 Literature on the Syrian Muslim Brotherhood ............................................................. 29 2.5 Concluding Remarks ........................................................................................................ 30 Chapter 3: Theoretical Framework ......................................................................... 32 3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 32 3.2 Key Terms and Concepts ................................................................................................. 32 3.2.1 Social Movement Theory as Applied to Islamic Movements ..................................... 32 3.2.2 Political Opportunity Structure ................................................................................... 38 3.3 Concluding Remarks ........................................................................................................ 39 Chapter 4: The History and Organization of the Syrian Muslim Brotherhood (SMB) .......................................................................................................................... 41 4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 41 4.2 The Founding and Evolution of the Muslim Brotherhood (MB) Ikhwan Al-Muslimin in Egypt .................................................................................................................................... 42 4.2.1 Hassan Al-Banna and the Birth of the Organization ................................................... 43 4.2.2 The Muslim Brotherhood under Gamal Abdul Nasser ............................................... 46 4.2.3 The Nasser Suppression of the MB and the Radicalization of the Organization ........ 48 4.2.4 The MB under Sadat ..................................................................................................