1 CHAPTER 19 Storage and Disposal of Irradiated Fuel prepared by Mukesh Tayal and Milan Gacesa – Independent Consultants Summary Nuclear wastes, in particular irradiated nuclear fuel, must be handled, stored, and placed into permanent disposal facilities safely to prevent harm to people and the environment. Radioactive wastes can be grouped into four classes: (i) low-level radioactive waste, (ii) intermediate-level radioactive waste, (iii) high-level radioactive waste such as irradiated nuclear fuel, and (iv) uranium mine and mill waste. Storage and disposal of irradiated fuel in Canada follows a three-step process: storage in water-cooled pools, storage in air-cooled storage cylinders, and final disposal. The two stages of storage (the first two steps above) are fully proven and have been in practical operation for some time. The associated technical challenges that must be addressed and the engineered solutions are discussed in this chapter. Several configurations for final disposal have been shown to be technically feasible. Public acceptance and implementation remain to be achieved; ongoing work aimed at achieving these goals is discussed. Nature’s “reactors” that existed billions of years ago are examined for useful analogies that can be applied to engineered disposal facilities. ©UNENE, all rights reserved. For educational use only, no assumed liability. Storage and Disposal of Irradiated Fuel – December 2015 2 The Essential CANDU Table of Contents 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 4 1.1 Learning Outcomes......................................................................................................... 4 2 Types of Waste........................................................................................................................ 4 3 Strategies to Manage Radioactive Waste ............................................................................... 5 4 Irradiated Fuel Storage and Disposal: Main Considerations................................................... 6 5 Fuel Integrity........................................................................................................................... 8 5.1 Requirements.................................................................................................................. 8 5.2 Key Drivers and Precursors ............................................................................................. 9 5.3 Fuel Damage Mechanisms ............................................................................................ 12 6 Wet Storage at Reactor Sites................................................................................................. 14 6.1 Flow of Fuel Bundles Through a CANDU....................................................................... 14 6.2 Irradiated Fuel Bundles Temporarily in Air ................................................................... 16 6.3 Throughput of Irradiated Fuel Bundles......................................................................... 16 6.4 Irradiated Fuel Bay: Typical Dimensions ....................................................................... 17 6.5 Irradiated Fuel Bay: Heat Removal................................................................................ 18 6.6 Corrosion of Irradiated Fuel in the Pool........................................................................ 19 6.7 Shielding of Irradiated Fuel in the Pool......................................................................... 20 6.8 Criticality Not an Issue for CANDU Irradiated Fuel ....................................................... 20 7 Dry Storage at Reactor Sites.................................................................................................. 20 7.1 Dry Storage Containers ................................................................................................. 20 7.2 Concrete Canisters ........................................................................................................ 20 7.3 Storage Baskets............................................................................................................. 21 7.4 Transfer of Bundles from the Pool into Baskets............................................................ 22 7.5 Heat Transfer................................................................................................................. 22 7.6 Fuel Integrity................................................................................................................. 22 7.7 Shielding........................................................................................................................ 23 8 Final Disposal or Isolation ..................................................................................................... 23 8.1 Strategy ......................................................................................................................... 23 8.2 Phases of Disposal......................................................................................................... 24 8.3 Repository ..................................................................................................................... 25 8.4 Used Fuel Containers .................................................................................................... 27 8.5 Buffer Material.............................................................................................................. 27 8.6 Rock Temperature ......................................................................................................... 28 8.7 Health Protection.......................................................................................................... 29 8.8 Breach of Containment................................................................................................. 32 8.9 Nature’s Analogues for a Waste Repository ................................................................. 33 9 Problems ............................................................................................................................... 35 10 References............................................................................................................................. 37 11 Further Reading Material...................................................................................................... 39 12 Relationships with Other Chapters ....................................................................................... 40 13 Acknowledgements............................................................................................................... 40 ©UNENE, all rights reserved. For educational use only, no assumed liability. Storage and Disposal of Irradiated Fuel – December 2015 Storage and Disposal of Irradiated Fuel 3 List of Figures Figure 1 Decay power of an irradiated fuel bundle ...................................................................... 10 Figure 2 Illustrative temperatures in an LWR fuel and canister.................................................... 11 Figure 3 Gas volume inside a fuel element................................................................................... 12 Figure 4 Flow of fuel through a CANDU reactor ........................................................................... 15 Figure 5 A typical irradiated fuel bay ............................................................................................ 19 Figure 6 Overview of MACSTOR.................................................................................................... 21 Figure 7 Basket for dry storage of fuel......................................................................................... 22 Figure 8 Concept of a deep geological repository ........................................................................ 26 Figure 9 Containers for Permanent Disposal of Irradiated Fuel ................................................... 28 Figure 10 Decay of radioactivity in CANDU fuel............................................................................ 30 Figure 11 Toxicity in ground water................................................................................................ 31 Figure 12 Dose rate at the surface of a repository ....................................................................... 33 ©UNENE, all rights reserved. For educational use only, no assumed liability. Storage and Disposal of Irradiated Fuel – December 2015 4 The Essential CANDU 1 Introduction This chapter focuses mainly on the challenges that must be met during storage and disposal of high-level nuclear waste, specifically storage and disposal of irradiated fuel (also called “spent” fuel or “used” fuel). Some illustrative potential solutions are also summarized. To this end, Sections 2 to 5 describe the types of wastes, the overall strategy to manage them, the associated design considerations, and the potential mechanisms for damage to fuel integrity. Then each major phase of managing irradiated fuel is described: initial wet storage at reactor sites (Section 6), followed by dry storage at reactor sites (Section 7) and final disposal (Section 8). IAEA [2003] provides an extensive glossary of relevant terms. This chapter draws heavily from previous publications. Significant passages that have been copied verbatim from other sources are enclosed within quotes “...”. 1.1 Learning Outcomes The goal of this chapter is for the student to acquire