INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND CHANGE: A KUHNIAN INTERPRETATION A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY of RHODES UNIVERSITY by JACOBUS SCHOEMAN November 2005 ABSTRACT International Relations and Change: A Kuhnian Interpretation Using notions of change developed by Thomas Kuhn, the thesis argues that the rise of globalisation and the end of the Cold War presented the Westphalian or state-centric paradigm of international relations with a Kuhnian paradigm “crisis”. As a result, both the theory and the practice of international relations are in the midst of (what Kuhn calls) a “paradigm shift”. Emerging from this shift is (what is described in this work as) “Access World” and “Denial World” – a particular global configuration of the practice of international relations. Kuhn’s idea of “incommensurability” seems to typify the relationship between the two components of this bifurcated configuration of the international. Both intellectual risk-taking and political courage are required if the ontological struggle raging between “Access World” and “Denial World” is to be settled. This will pave the way for a new paradigm to emerge. Kuhn provides us with the insight that, to achieve this ontological breakthrough, a fundamental change in our vision of the discipline of International Relations, but also of the world of everyday international relations, is required. This entails recasting the study of International Relations as an emancipatory project and by recognising the centrality of ii human beings in the practice of international relations. Only if this is done, will we be able to arrive at a cosmopolitan political bargain that is appropriate for the 21st century. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ………………………………………………………… ii PREFACE …………………………………………………………... xiii CHAPTER ONE: THE STATE OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS – WESTPHALIA TO THE WALL ……… 1 1.1 Problem statement …………………………………………… 1 1.2 Literature review ……………………………………………. 6 1.3 Objectives …………………………………………………… 13 1.4 Methodology ………………………………………………… 14 1.4.1 The concept of “globalisation” ……………………………… 17 1.4.2 The concepts of “modernity” and “postmodernity” ………… 21 1.4.2.1 Modernity, postmodernity and international relations ... 26 1.4.3 Supplementary methodological markers ……………………. 29 1.5 Chapter layout ………………………………………………. 34 1.6 Conclusion ………………………………………………….. 37 CHAPTER TWO: “THE POSSESSION OF COMMUNITIES” – THOMAS KUHN, INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND THE MAKING OF KNOWLEDGE …………………………………………………. 38 2.1 Introduction ………………………………………………….. 38 2.2 The time-bound nature of theoretical knowledge …………… 39 2.3 The purpose-bound nature of theoretical knowledge ……….. 40 iv 2.4 Problem-solving theory and critical social theory …………… 42 2.4.1 Problem-solving theory, critical theory and constructivism …. 46 2.4.2 Problem-solving theory, critical theory and post-positivism … 50 2.5 Thomas Kuhn, knowledge and international relations ………. 53 2.5.1 Thomas Kuhn and the time-bound nature of theoretical knowledge …………………………………………………… 59 2.5.1.1 The introduction of “Big Science” ………………………. 60 2.5.1.2 The onset of the Cold War ………………………………. 61 2.5.1.3 The student movement of the 1960s …………………….. 61 2.5.1.4 Kuhn’s involvement with the “General Education in Science” programme …………………………………….. 62 2.5.1.5 Thomas Kuhn’s “intellectual epiphany” ………………… 63 2.5.2 Thomas Kuhn and the purpose-bound nature of theoretical knowledge ………………………………………………….. 66 2.5.3 Thomas Kuhn, critical theory and problem-solving theory … 69 2.6 Explaining the Westphalian paradigm’s knowledge deficit … 73 2.7 Conclusion …………………………………………………… 76 CHAPTER THREE: BUDDY CAN YOU PARADIGM? THOMAS KUHN, INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND THE NATURE OF CHANGE ……………………….. 79 3.1 Introduction ………………………………………………….. 79 3.2 A critical discussion of Thomas Kuhn’s views on change ….. 80 3.2.1 The period of “pre-paradigmatic” science …………………… 81 3.2.2 The period of “normal science” ……………………………… 82 3.2.3 The awareness of anomaly …………………………………… 86 v 3.2.4 The period of “crisis” ………………………………………… 86 3.2.5 The response to “crisis” ……………………………………… 87 3.2.6 The “scientific revolution” …………………………………… 88 3.2.6.1 The concept of “incommensurability” ……………………. 93 3.2.6.1.1 Kuhn’s original formulation of the concept of “incommensurability” …………………………………. 96 3.2.6.1.2 Changes in Kuhn’s views on “incommensurability” ….. 97 3.2.6.1.3 Thomas Kuhn and the bridging of “incommensurability” …………………………………. 99 3.2.7 A new period of “normal science” …………………………… 102 3.3 The relevance of Thomas Kuhn’s views on change for the social sciences ……………………………………………. 103 3.3.1 Kuhn’s contribution as a social scientist ……………………… 107 3.3.2 The centrality of language in Kuhn’s theory ………………… 108 3.3.3 Kuhn as facilitator of an understanding of social change ……. 109 3.3.4 The “Kuhnianization” of the social sciences ………………… 109 3.4 The relevance of Thomas Kuhn’s views on change for international relations ………………………………………… 111 3.5 Making sense of International Relations’ and international relations’ ontological battles …………………………………. 121 3.5.1 Responses to the paradigm shift in international relations …… 123 3.5.1.1 The blurring of the existing paradigm …………………….. 124 3.5.1.2 A division of society into competing camps or parties …… 124 3.5.1.3 Tension between apparently incommensurable schools of thought …………………………………………………. 126 3.5.1.4 A return to a situation akin to the “pre-paradigm” state ….. 127 vi 3.5.1.5 The absence of a shared body of theory and methodology .. 128 3.6 Conclusion …………………………………………………… 130 CHAPTER FOUR: DIMENSIONS OF “WESTFLAILIA”: THE CONCEPT OF SECURITY ………………………….. 133 4.1 Introduction …………………………………………………. 133 4.2 The concept of security: theoretical anomalies ……………… 137 4.2.1 The “broadening” of the concept of security ………………… 141 4.2.2 The “widening” of the concept of security …………………... 142 4.3 The concept of security: practical anomalies ………………… 145 4.3.1 Changing game pieces ……………………………………….. 148 4.3.1.1 The example of Al Qaeda …………………………………. 149 4.3.2 A changing game board ……………………………………… 150 4.3.2.1 The changing face of war ………………………………… 151 4.3.3 Changes in the rules of the game ……………………………… 155 4.3.3.1 Concerns regarding long-range technological changes …… 159 4.3.3.2 Concerns regarding changes in the global economic fabric …………………………………………… 160 4.3.3.3 Concerns regarding changes in the ideological matrix ........ 161 4.4 Security as a dimension of the paradigm shift in international relations ………………………………………… 163 4.5 Conclusion ……………………………………………………. 167 vii CHAPTER FIVE: DIMENSIONS OF “WESTFLAILIA”: THE CONCEPT OF SOVEREIGNTY …………………….. 169 5.1 Introduction ………………………………………………….. 169 5.2 The concept of sovereignty: theoretical anomalies ………….. 170 5.2.1 Constructivist criticism of the concept of sovereignty ……… 175 5.2.2 The emergence of the environment as an issue area in International Relations ……………………………………….. 181 5.3 The concept of sovereignty: practical anomalies …………….. 184 5.3.1 Questions surrounding the sovereignty of the nation-state: the internal dimension ………………………………………… 186 5.3.1.1 The phenomenon of “failed states” ……………………….. 186 5.3.1.2 The phenomenon of “quasi-states” ……………………….. 188 5.3.1.3 The phenomenon of “pseudo-states” ……………………… 189 5.3.1.4 The growth of criminal organisations …………………….. 190 5.3.1.5 The question of taxation …………………………………… 192 5.3.1.6 The onset of a worldwide “organisational explosion” …….. 193 5.3.1.7 Links between sub-national authorities …………………… 194 5.3.2 Questions surrounding the sovereignty of the nation-state: the external dimension ………………………………………... 196 5.3.2.1 The presence of global economic and financial architecture ……………………………………………… 197 5.3.2.2 The influence of Transnational Corporations (TNCs) ….. 198 5.3.2.2.1 The role of Transnational Corporations (TNCs) in the media sector …………………………………………. 200 5.3.2.3 The influence of cutting-edge technology ………………. 201 viii 5.3.2.4 The role of supranational political and economic organisations ……………………………………………. 202 5.3.2.5 The emergence of encompassing normative frameworks .. 205 5.3.2.6 The global role of the United States ……………………… 207 5.4 Sovereignty as a dimension of the paradigm shift in international relations ………………………………………… 210 5.5 Conclusion ……………………………………………………. 213 CHAPTER SIX: DIMENSIONS OF “WESTFLAILIA”: THE CONCEPT OF IDENTITY ……………………………. 215 6.1 Introduction …………………………………………………… 215 6.2 The concept of identity: theoretical anomalies ……………… 216 6.2.1 Constructivist criticism of the concept of identity …………… 223 6.3 The concept of identity: practical anomalies ………………… 228 6.3.1 Sub-national challenges to identity ………………………….. 230 6.3.1.1 The challenge of ethnicity ………………………………… 230 6.3.1.2 The challenge of “consumer sovereignty” ………………… 234 6.3.2 Supra-national challenges to identity …………………………. 235 6.3.2.1 The rise of the European Union (EU) ……………………... 235 6.3.2.2 The creation of the Internet and of the World Wide Web (WWW) ……………………………….. 237 6.3.2.3 The proliferation of social movements ……………………. 238 6.4 Identity as a dimension of the paradigm shift in international relations ……………………………………….. 241 6.5 Conclusion …………………………………………………… 244 ix CHAPTER SEVEN: SECURITY, SOVEREIGNTY, AND IDENTITY REVISITED: ACCESS WORLD AND DENIAL WORLD ………………………………………. 247 7.1 Introduction ………………………………………………….. 247 7.2 The concepts “Access World” and “Denial World” …………. 253 7.3 Characteristics of Access World and Denial World …………. 255 7.3.1 The question of “affluence” …………………………………. 255 7.3.2 The question of “mobility” ……………………………………