View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by ResearchArchive at Victoria University of Wellington Democracy in the face of disagreement: Environmentalist opposition to Escarpment Mine on the Denniston Plateau Lillian Fougère Thesis ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 591 A 120 point thesis submitted to Victoria University of Wellington in partial fulfilment of requirements for the degree of Master of Environmental Studies School of Geography, Environment and Earth Sciences Victoria University of Wellington March 2013 Abstract Democracy in the face of disagreement: Environmentalist opposition to Escarpment Mine on the Denniston Plateau Despite New Zealand’s Resource Management Act 1991 (RMA) being lauded as offering democratic decision-making processes, those in opposition to consent applications often feel their input has minimal influence on the decisions made. This research explores how democracy is actualised or constrained through environmentalist opposition to decisions made about coal-mining on conservation land, including both informal and formal participation. Escarpment Mine is a proposal for an open cast coal mine on the Denniston Plateau on the West Coast of New Zealand. The mine was granted resource consents in 2011 by the two local councils. Environmental activists engaged with these decisions through the formal council led submission process, a requirement under the RMA, and informally through activism, protest and campaigning. Their opposition was founded on concerns about the mine’s effects on conservation and climate change. Drawing on theories of deliberative democracy and radical democracy, I create a framework for democracy that includes agonism and antagonism, situated within the overarching democratic principles of equality, justice and the rule of the people. Through interviewing environmentalists opposed to Escarpment Mine and the council officials involved, my research discusses the way environmentalists were constrained from participating meaningfully in the formal process due to perceived bias and the privileging of neoliberal discourses. I suggest that this case reflects a lack of agonism in most areas, and a delegitimising of antagonistic activism despite such activism working towards equality and justice. Thus, the case does not fulfil the democratic ideals of working with disagreement. Key words: environmental management, environmentalism, Resource Management Act 1991, activism, agonistic planning, radical democracy, communicative planning, deliberative democracy i ii Acknowledgements This research would not be what it is without the generous time, support and guidance gifted to me by numerous people, both known to me and strangers. I am wholeheartedly grateful to the wide range of people who so willingly gave their time and shared their experiences with me during interviews. Your passion and dedication to your values and to society is an inspiration. My supervisor, Dr. Sophie Bond, has given me invaluable support, guidance and reassurance throughout the entire research process. I am incredibly grateful for working with such a brilliant academic and compassionate person during this time. Thank you to my dear family, loved ones, friends, flatmates and fellow musicians that gave me constant encouragement and feedback in various forms. Although there are many others, I would particularly like to thank Janet Thomson, David Fougère, Ed Hearnshaw, Nina Hall, Joe Beaglehole, Cristian Leaman, Maria Williams, Chris Bean, Cindy Jemmett, Sonja Bonn, Sarah Adams, Sharon Renfro, Tim Divett and Kiri Stevens. Thanks also to the Social Theory and Spatial Praxis research group at Victoria University of Wellington, and other staff and fellow post-graduate students, who discussed, listened and explored various aspects of social research and my research on a number of occasions. I also express sincere gratitude to the Todd Foundation, who provided funding for my thesis fees and field research costs. iii iv Table of contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................. i Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... iii Table of contents ............................................................................................................... v List of tables ......................................................................................................................................... viii List of figures ....................................................................................................................................... viii Abbreviations .................................................................................................................... ix Chapter one: Introducing opposition to Escarpment Mine and issues with democratic decision-making .......................................................................................... 1 1.1 Democracy ......................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Escarpment Mine and environmentalist opposition .................................................... 3 1.3 Research objective and thesis overview ............................................................................. 5 Chapter two: Methodology .............................................................................................. 9 2.1 Constructivist epistemology ..................................................................................................... 9 2.1.1 Post-structuralism .............................................................................................................. 10 2.1.2 Power and discourse ......................................................................................................... 10 2.1.3 My positionality ................................................................................................................... 12 2.2 Research methods ...................................................................................................................... 14 2.2.1 Case study ............................................................................................................................... 14 2.2.2 Literature review methods ............................................................................................ 16 2.2.3 Interview methods ............................................................................................................. 16 2.2.4 Analysis .................................................................................................................................... 20 2.3 Synopsis ........................................................................................................................................... 22 Chapter three: Environmental activism and politics in New Zealand ............. 23 3.1 Escarpment Mine on the Denniston Plateau and parallel cases ........................... 24 3.1.1 Environmentalist opposition to Escarpment Mine............................................. 27 3.1.2 ‘2 precious 2 mine’: New Zealand’s conservation land and the art of nationwide protest ........................................................................................................................ 28 3.1.2 Save Happy Valley............................................................................................................... 30 3.1.4 Mokihinui ................................................................................................................................ 32 3.2 Formal participation processes under legislation ...................................................... 35 3.2.1 Resource Management Act 1991 ................................................................................. 35 3.2.2 Crown Minerals Act 1991 and the Conservation Act 1987............................. 37 3.3 Environmentalism and the rise of a neoliberal agenda ............................................ 38 v 3.3.1 Save Manapouri and the legacy of environmentalism ....................................... 39 3.3.2 The rise of neoliberal decision-making..................................................................... 40 3.4 Synopsis ........................................................................................................................................... 43 Chapter four: Participation, disagreement and democracy ................................ 45 4.1 Environmentalism as activism .............................................................................................. 45 4.2 Democratic principles and participation ......................................................................... 48 4.2.1 Equality, justice, freedom and the rule of the people ......................................... 48 4.2.2 Participation........................................................................................................................... 50 4.3 Deliberative democracy and radical democracy .......................................................... 53 4.3.1 Critiques of a pure consensus ........................................................................................ 53 4.3.2 Rational deliberations: the potential for coercion? ............................................ 54 4.3.3 Deliberation, consensus and exclusion ....................................................................