An Ancient Technique for Ripening Sycomore Fruit in East.Mediterranean Countries J. GALIL 1 Introduction was always very short on trees, the wood of Sycomore trees (Ficus sycomor~s L.) are the sycomore was highly valued. The ancient widespread in the Near East, in Egypt, Egyptians used it to make a wide assortment Israel, Lebanon and Cyprus. They grow of household utensils and factory imple- chiefly in plains and along rivers, where the ments, houses, all kinds of boxes and espe- soil renmins humid even during the hot and cially coffins (23). Figuratively speaking dry s']mmer. They are tall trees with a broad and from the standpoint of construction crown and spreading branches, standing out timber, the ancient Egyptian civilization conspicuously from other plants. may be said to have been firmly based on the Sycomores originate fro.m the savannas of sycomore tree (17). Although the taste of eastern Central Africa and from Yemen, sycomore fruit is not superlative, in Egypt where they grow spontaneously and repro- it has been held in high esteem since earliest duce by seeds. The flowers are pollinated times. regularly by the small chalcidoid wasp Cera- The Egyptians of old expressed their tosolen arab@us Mayr. affection and appreciation for the sycomore It is not known how the sycomore was in many ways. It was held sacred to various introduced into the Near East. Perhaps deities, especially to Iiathor, the goddess of seeds or branches were swept with the Nile love. Representations of the tree and its flood, or man may have brought it along fruit are to be found on bas-reliefs and from the south (20). In any case, remains of ancient papyri, and songs have been written the syeomore tree (wood, roots and fruit), ia its praise. Of special interest to the discovered in Egypt, date as far back as the botanist are the fruit and leafy branches predynastic period; i.e., more than 3000 placed as funeral offerings in the tombs of years B. C. (17). kings and noblemen; owing to dryness of the The original pollinators of the syconmre air, these specimens have been very well did not reach the Mediterranean countries, preserved and can be studied now just as and, consequently, seeds were not formed readily as any recent plant (7, 15). there, nor in Egypt nor Israel. Theophrastus It is not known when the sycomore was (372-287 B.C.) stated that the sycomore did brought to Israel from Egypt, but it is quite not produce seeds in Egypt. Dry sycomore evident that this must have taken place very fruit found in the grave of Ani of the XXth early in history, as the tree was well known dynasty (about 1100 B.C.) contained nei- in Biblical times. In Israel, the sycomore ther seeds nor Ccratosolen wasps (7). Thus, grows chiefly in the coastal plain and in the sycomore trees growing in the Near East are Jordan Valley. Both the tree and its fruit outside the spontaneous area of the plant were appreciated by the inhabitants, but not and depend on man for their propagation. so highly as in Egypt. The fruit could not They are easily increased through cuttings compete with the common figs, pomegranates and. stakes. and grapes. In ancient Israel, sycamore was Apart fr<>m its importance as a. good eaten mostly by the poor who could not shade tree, the sycomore also provides tim- afford the more expensive fruits. ber and fruit. In desert-dry Egypt, which The wood of the sycomore was held in relatively higher esteem than its fruit. It was 1 Department of Botany, Tel-Aviv Univer- used extensively in building and wherever sity, Tel-Aviv, Israel. long and stout beams were needed. Ac- Received for publication July 5, 1967. cordingly, in Talmudie literature, mainly in 178 GALIL : TECHNIQUE FOR RIPENING SYCOMORE FRUIT 179 the Mishna and the Tosephta, we find many circular cuts have often been observed on rules governing use of the tree and its dry sycomore fruit from ancient tombs or products. (4). th'lt depicted in old paintings and bas-reliefs The extensive literature on the syc(mmrc (Fig. 2). Even contemporary Egyptian accumulated from the tinle of Theophrastus farmers employ the same technique, and on to the present makes repeated reference to a sycomore fruit sold in the suburbs of Cairo, unique treatment of the sycomore fruit, as dark, gaping circular cuts are prominent practiced in Egypt and in Cyprus. Theo- (Fig. 3). The physiology of fruit ripening phrastus states (21, vol. 1, book IV, p. 291) : has been extensively studied during the last "It cannot ripen unless it is scraped, but decade (2). As a result, the role of ethylene they scrape it with iron claws; the fruit thus gas in fruit ripening (3) and the effect of scraped ripens in four days." Keimer (14) phytohormones on the production of ethyl- quotes an Egyptian farmer on the same ene (10, 19) have both been proved. It is subject: "Before I begin the work of cutting now well known that in many cases wound- the sycomore figs, first of all I sharpen two ing of the fruit has a marked effect on its similar knives. Then I climb the tree. As rate of respiration and ethylene production, there are innumerable fruit on the tree, I and consequently on its ripening (18). All must work quickly. I take therefore a knife these data are indispensable for understand- in each hand, that is when the form of the ing the gashing technique. branch offers a sufficient hold .... " In the Descriptions of the cuts in sycomore fruit same work, Keimer depicts the special knife are widespread in botanical and Egyptologi- used by the Egyptians for making these cal literature, but they are not backed up by circular cuts (Fig. 1). Brief references to sufficient knowledge of the biology of these such treatment are found also in the writ- figs and the physiology of fruit ripening. ings of several other authors (1, 11, 12). The For this reason, the connection between the treatment described above and the small wasps inhabiting the figs has never been properly understood. The present paper con- tributes new and more complete information on this subject, in the light of recent ad- winces in botany and zoology. Materials and Methods The developmental cycles of the sycomore figs and of the wasps inhabiting them were studied at the Botanical Garden of Tel-Aviv University. Observations on the gashing technique were made in Limassol, Cyprus. Sycomores growing in the suburbs of Linms- sol belong to a variety which necessitates gashing the figs for ripening, and the local Turkish peasants treat the fruit as do the Egyptians. The physiological experiments were conducted at the Botanical Garden of Tel-Aviv University. The figs were enclosed in cellophane bags while on the tree, and various substances~including solutions of phytohormones, ethylene gas and various p!ant parts--were tested for their effect on fruit ripening. Observations Fig. 1. Knives used for gashing of syeomore figs in Egypt (according to Henslow (A, B) Inflorescence a~d fruit. The structure of and Keimer (A). the floral organs of the sycomore will be 180 ECONOMIC BOTANY Fig. 2. Bas-relief showing a sycomore tree with gashed fruit. Found at Thebes, Egypt. Ac- cording to Laurent-T~ickholm, 1964 (courtesy of Natur och Kultur, Stockholm). described briefly, as far as necessary for an In Israel, flowering and fruiting of the understanding of the main aspects of the sycomore occur during the hot summer gashing technique. For further detail, the months. Up to six crops may be produced in reader is referred to the paper of Galil and one year by a single tree. The figs are found Eisikowiteh (8). occasionally on trees even during winter Fig. 3. Gashed sycomore fruit from Egypt. Collection of Schweinfurth. Museum of Natural Sciences, Dahlem, Berlin (courtesy of the management of the Museum). GALIL: TECHNIQUE FOR RIPENING SYCOMORE FRUIT 181 Fig. 4. Sycomore panicle bearing vegetative-parthenocarpic fruit (B'). PARTftENOCARPIC FRUIT (sr/.vtA.w) E EXIT FENALE ~:N.":) PHASE FIOWfR"~ Fig. 5, Developmental cycle of sycomore fig ia Israel. 182 ECONOMIC BOTANY 'YCOPNA 6A SYCOMORI r~ Fig. 6. Sycomore wasp, Sycophaga sycomori. months, but their number is usually small, turing several weeks after tile female flow- and development very slow. The figs develop ers. in special panicles on the trunk and nmin branches (Fig. 4). The sycomore wasps. Of the eight syco- As in all Ficus species, the inflorescence philous wasp species inhabiting the fruit of of the sycomore--i.e., the fig or syconium-- the sycomore in its native country, only two is a hollow receptacle bearing the flowers on have reached the Near East (8). The more its inner surface and closed from the outside important of the two is the syeomore wasp by several scales (Fig. 5). The sycomore is Sycophaga sycomori L. (Chalcidoidea, monoecious, each fig containing both female Agaonidae). Like other fig wasps, Syco- and male flowers. The former are numerous phaga shows a distinctly pronounced sexual and cover most of the inner surface, while dimorphism (Fig. 6). The female is an agile, the latter number 20 to 30 and are situated winged insect, 1.5--1.8mm ill length. Its at the upper part of the fig.', elose to the ovipositor is comparatively long--up to entrance scales. The fenmle flowers eonsist 2ram. Tile male is a wingless, crawling in- of a few perianth scales and a central pistil; sect, characterized by two very long fila- the male flowers, of two stamens within the ments at its widened posterior tip (9).