View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Kyoto University Research Information Repository The NEET and Hikikomori spectrum: Assessing the risks and Title consequences of becoming culturally marginalized. Author(s) Uchida, Yukiko; Norasakkunkit, Vinai Citation Frontiers in psychology (2015), 6 Issue Date 2015-08-18 URL http://hdl.handle.net/2433/214324 © 2015 Uchida and Norasakkunkit. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original Right author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. Type Journal Article Textversion publisher Kyoto University ORIGINAL RESEARCH published: 18 August 2015 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01117 The NEET and Hikikomori spectrum: Assessing the risks and consequences of becoming culturally marginalized Yukiko Uchida 1* and Vinai Norasakkunkit 2 1 Kokoro Research Center, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan, 2 Department of Psychology, Gonzaga University, Spokane, WA, USA An increasing number of young people are becoming socially and economically marginalized in Japan under economic stagnation and pressures to be more globally competitive in a post-industrial economy. The phenomena of NEET/Hikikomori (occupational/social withdrawal) have attracted global attention in recent years. Though the behavioral symptoms of NEET and Hikikomori can be differentiated, some commonalities in psychological features can be found. Specifically, we believe that both NEET and Hikikomori show psychological tendencies that deviate from those Edited by: Tuukka Hannu Ilmari Toivonen, governed by mainstream cultural attitudes, values, and behaviors, with the difference University of London, UK between NEET and Hikikomori being largely a matter of degree. In this study, we Reviewed by: developed a NEET-Hikikomori Risk Factors (NHR) scale that treats NEET/Hikikomori Takeshi Hamamura, Curtin University, Australia not as a set of distinct diagnoses, but as a spectrum of psychological tendencies Michael E. W. Varnum, associated with the risk of being marginalized in society. Based on this idea, we identified Arizona State University, USA three related risk factors in our NHR spectrum scale: (1) Freeter lifestyle preference, *Correspondence: which in Japan refers to the tendency to consciously choose to not work despite Yukiko Uchida, Kokoro Research Center, Kyoto job availabilities, (2) a lack of self-competence, and (3) having unclear ambitions for University, 46 shimoadachi Yoshida, the future (Study 1). Study 2 investigated and confirmed the validity of the scale by Sakyo, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan [email protected] examining NHR differences between occupational groups. The results suggested that NHR is related to psychological tendencies common in the marginalized segments of Specialty section: society. The relationship between these psychological tendencies and actually becoming This article was submitted to Cultural Psychology, marginalized across cultures is discussed. a section of the journal Frontiers in Psychology Keywords: NEET, Hikikomori, marginalization, culture, risk factors, rating scales Received: 30 March 2015 Accepted: 20 July 2015 Published: 18 August 2015 NEET and Hikikomori and Psychological Spectra Citation: Since entering the twenty-first century, an increasing proportion of young Japanese have become Uchida Y and Norasakkunkit V (2015) socially/culturally marginalized. Specifically, many of them are emerging as “NEETs (Not in The NEET and Hikikomori spectrum: Assessing the risks and Employment Education or Training; Genda, 2005)” or “Hikikomori” (socially withdrawn/isolated). consequences of becoming culturally The Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare defined NEET as “people who are not employed, not in marginalized. Front. Psychol. 6:1117. school, not a homemaker, and not seeking a job” and Hikikomori as “those who are neither in work doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01117 nor school, do not have social interactions and are socially withdrawn for more than 6 months.” Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 1 August 2015 | Volume 6 | Article 1117 Uchida and Norasakkunkit NEET-Hikikomori spectrum and cultural marginalization Based on these classification criteria, the Cabinet Office of resulted from economic and social structural changes in post- the Japanese Government (2010) estimated that there were industrialized societies (Norasakkunkit and Uchida, 2011, 2012; about 700,000 Hikikomori. Also, a recent epidemiological study Toivonen et al., 2011). Furthermore, Ogihara and Uchida (2014) confirmed a life-time prevalence rate of about 1.2%, or a little over suggested that globalization has created a pressure toward 1.5 million individuals in the Japanese population, who are or increasing individualism, especially the kind that seems to be have been Hikikomori, with half of them not having a comorbid practiced in the United States (also see Hamamura, 2012). DSM-IV diagnosis (Koyama et al., 2010). Rising individualism seems to be a feature of all post-industrial Possible triggers of Hikikomori might include school societies (Arnett, 2011), including the United States (Twenge absenteeism (futoukou) or job insecurity. In fact, both the et al., 2012), due to increased competition at the individual numbers of Hikikomori and school refusers have been increasing level (as opposed to the intergroup level; Yuki and Brewer, (Jones, 2006) for the obvious reason that it becomes increasingly 2014), declining blue collar jobs and increasing white collar difficult to reintegrate into society the longer one remains socially jobs (Grossmann and Varnum, 2015), as well as globalization’s withdrawn. Consequently, it is not unusual to find a Hikikomori individualistic ideas and ideals (Hamamura, 2012; Ogihara who has been withdrawn for over a decade (Sakai et al., 2011). et al., 2015). However, individualism is not necessarily the Zielenziger (2006) has suggested that this is a cultural same everywhere. Whereas, American individualism is deeply syndrome specific to the Japanese context, since the number rooted in tradition and religious moral foundations, such as of Hikikomori (about 1.2% of the population; Koyama et al., the Protestant work ethic and Puritan ideals (Weber, 1920; 2010) in Japanese society is not insignificant. However, some Bellah et al., 2007), any imported version of individualism researchers have reported cases of NEETs or Hikikomori in other is likely to be stripped of such rich foundations and may countries such as the UK, Korea, Italy, Spain, and France (Kato lead to feelings of isolation and unhappiness, or even to et al., 2012; Pilz et al., 2013), although the prevalence and average irresponsible, reckless behavior. Similarly, any imported version length of withdrawal are not fully known in these other countries. of collectivism that is stripped of its traditional and moral Though there are distinct differences in the behavioral foundations, such as Confucianism or Buddhism, may appear symptoms of NEET and Hikikomori, some commonalities in to be unsophisticated group think or “adolescent cliquishness.” psychological tendencies can be found as well. First, some Thus, individualism in Japan is not likely to be identical to that literature has suggested that autistic tendencies might affect both of Western societies, no more than American collectivism is NEETs and Hikikomori (e.g., Hoshino, 2011). Second, they are likely to be identical to East Asian collectivism. Consequently, usually young adults under 40, who are supposed to be full increasing individualism in Japan without the strong foundations of energy in school or at work, but instead are not engaged that American individualism has been built on may very in many social interactions with other people, including with well contribute to confusion for many individuals who try their own family members. Third, they are not able to secure to become “individualistic,” especially if they use it as an a job or sense of belonging (Brinton, 2011). Some of them excuse to avoid interpersonal responsibilities and obligations, are “Freeters1” who are perpetually engaged in low-skill part- or to develop interpersonal skills that will let them become time employment. Others are Hikikomori or shut-ins. In sum, attuned to their in-group members (Ogihara and Uchida, both NEET and Hikikomori show a tendency to deviate from 2014). mainstream cultural attitudes and values. The spectrum-based Indeed, it has been argued that such cultural change can approach is found in other psychological disorders such as potentially have a negative impact on mental health, especially autistic spectrum disorder. The spectrum approach is useful for among young people, since it would affect their own cultural identifying the risk for people who have not been diagnosed with competence to function successfully within their own society a psychopathology (Koyama et al., 2010). (Toivonen et al., 2011), as well as their sense of continuity in their Thus, as the aims of this study are to measure the self-concept (Chandler et al., 2003). tendencies to deviate from the cultural mainstream rather than Though youth problems such as NEET and Hikikomori have to identify the detailed behavioral patterns found in NEET attracted much global